Effects and issues of promoting women's skills in the American workforce

¶ … Women-Workforce

Effects and issues related to the promotion and use of women and their skills into the American workforce

This paper explores the promotion of women within the American workforce. Specifically the aim of this study is to discover whether organizational systems within the U.S. are utilizing women to their fullest potential. The aim of the researcher is to examine whether or not women are still subjected to a 'glass ceiling' or barriers to advancing to the highest levels of organizations (senior and executive management roles in particular). For purposes of this study a survey was conducted of women and men in the workforce. The aim of the study is to examine what limits females desiring career advancement may face, and what common beliefs and perceptions are regarding female leadership and innovations within organizations.

In addition to the fieldwork portion of this research study, a literature review was examined to explore what leadership styles are evident in male and female leaders, and whether changes promotion opportunities are influenced by organizational systems with regard to female opportunities. The literature review draws from recent studies conducted of organizational culture, hiring and promotional practices. Leadership style and other factors related to gender are explored. Among the additional factors examined within the context of organizational culture include duties, communication patterns, institutional practices and hierarchical lines within the organization. From the data collected the researcher concludes that female leaders still face many barriers with regard to organizational opportunities and advancement within the highest levels of organizations.

Introduction

The purpose of this study is to examine what barriers still exist if any to the advancement of women within the executive tiers of the American workforce. This paper will explore specifically the effects and issues related to the promotion and use of women and their skills into the American workforce. The research intends to discover whether organizational systems are using their female workforces to their fullest potential. The research paper will also examine what the common views and perceptions of female leaders vs. male leaders are within corporations encompassing several different industries.

This study is significant because a large body of research exists that suggests that women are in fact, still discriminated against in the upper most echelon's of American corporations. Though women have made great strides with respect to the American workforce, they still lag behind men when it comes to rank. Several studies (Eagly & Johannasen-Schmidt, 2001; Stelter, 2002; Ash & Stevens, 2001) suggest that women are still limited in the workforce and are not presented with adequate promotional opportunities to the ranks of high management. Though organizations have adopted practices that encourage more women to enter the workforce, the majority of information available suggests that women are still limited with regard to management and leadership roles/opportunities (Oakley, 2000; Eagly & Johannasen-Schmidt, 2001). A number of studies conducted by the Department of Labor and other organizations over the years and throughout the course of the 1990s still show that women in general hold only between 1 and 3% of executive level positions in management, though that number may have risen in recent years to almost 5% (Eagly & Johannasen-Schmidt, 2001; U.S. Department Labor, 1995). This number however suggests that male leaders still dominate 95% of the senior management positions available in most corporations today. It is important that studies be conducted that examine the extent to which women are still denied advancement and/or promotional opportunities so corporations can begin building effective strategies to combat this trend.

To explore this subject in greater detail, this paper will review literature and studies conducted of female and male leadership patters, and conduct a study that examines the subject of how women can reach their potential within the American workforce. Among the subjects or questions that will be explored as part of this research include the following:

When a transformation takes place from a male-led to female-led leadership, does it also influence the institutional culture?

Whether or not any apparent changes in organizational culture such as financial solvency, level of stress, changes in duties, communication patterns and protocols, institutional practices and interaction between peers and across hierarchical lines are perceived as positive or negative by those most directly affected by such changes in gender leadership.

I have taken a personal interest in exploring this topic because my personal goals are to advance within my corporation with time; my aim is to discover ways to bolster my potential as a woman in the American workforce, and to advance and learn exactly what techniques will work in the business world. For women to succeed in the highest levels of management, they must first identify any barriers that exist to their potential for advancement and success within an organization.

Some studies show that women are more likely than men to manage in an interactive style of management, encouraging participation, sharing power and information, and enhancing the self-worth of others which could impact an organization's success (Eagly & Johannasen-Schmidt, 2001; Oakley, 2000). Part of the aim of this study will be to assess whether this type of management style is as effective, more effective or less effective than other traditional assertive or authoritarian approaches typically associated with male leaders in the highest ranks of organizations. This study will also examine whether gender stereotypes exist with respect to female advancement in the workforce..

There are two distinct topics that are being examined in this study:

The difference in male and female leadership

The opportunities for promotion for females

The literature review will examine both of these topics in greater detail. The results of the literature review will be combined with insight gathered from the survey results and analyzed by the researcher, so that the researcher may through descriptive and exploratory research draw adequate and grounded conclusions with regard to the status of women in the workforce and their potential for career advancement among the highest levels of a corporation.

Statement of the Problem

The lack of advancement of women in management within the corporate world is a continuing problem among companies large and small. Several studies examined support the notion that though women are successful in business, they still face traditional stereotypes and obstacles to advancement at the highest levels of organizations (Eagly & Johannasen-Schmidt, 2001). Though women are entering the business world in greater numbers but barriers still exist to their advancement in the structure of work organizations, the structure of the educational and economic systems, and in the social order. Many studies conducted of discrimination and related topics in the workplace are still very recent, indicating that a problem still exists for women in the workforce.

Background of the Problem

Companies must find ways to keep talented women from quitting. Cultural change, flexible schedules, and training for leadership all may play a role. This means making changes in organizations that diminishes the glass ceiling in terms of wages, the job ladder, and career development. Organizations need to develop a culture that sees women as a resource and not a problem.

By creating the right environment, companies may see a decrease in attrition or turn-over rate, an increase in productivity, and a workplace that encourages diversity which in turn will create a more energetic and innovative workforce.

Literature Review

The literature review will examine several recent studies that have been conducted of leadership practices, hiring and promotional practices, organizational culture and barriers women face with regard to the workforce. Specifically, the literature review will aim to uncover what obstacles women face when seeking career advancement. The literature review will focus on women in management from the following perspectives:

Male vs. Female Leadership Styles

Opportunities for Promotion of Females

Male vs. Female Leadership Styles

There is a large body of research dedicated toward examining male and female leadership styles. The intent of much of this research is to discover whether or not men and women behave differently in leadership roles. The impact female leadership vs. male leadership styles have on organizational success, culture and attitudes is also examined.

Generally there is agreement among researchers that women "face more barriers to becoming leaders than men do, especially in roles that are male-dominated" (Eagly & Johannasen-Schmidt, 2001, p. 781). There is not agreement however as to whether the behavior of women and men change once they achieve leadership roles (Eagly & Johannasen-Schmidt, 2001).

To understand the different styles of men and women one must first define leadership style. Leadership style is generally understood as "relatively stable patterns of behavior that are manifested by leaders" (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001, p. 781).

The researchers that suggest that the style of men and women are different claim that women are in general less hierarchical, more cooperative, collaborative and oriented toward enhancing employee's self-worth (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001; Book, 2000; Rosener, 1995). There are an equal number of studies however that suggest that female and male leaders typically minimize any natural differences that may exist (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

Social Theory of Sex Differences

The social role theory of sex differences suggests that leadership roles are one influence of many on an individual's behavior (Eagly, Wood & Diekman, 2000). This theory also suggests that leaders exhibit certain leadership styles and behaviors based on what people expect of them as a male or female; this expectancy is also referred to as gender roles (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001). Gender roles are defined as the "shared beliefs that apply to individuals on the basis of their socially identified sex" (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001, p. 781).

Thus based on this theory leadership roles are assumed to result from "perceiver's observations" of men and women as "concentrated in different social roles in the family and paid employment" (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001, p. 781). One logically concludes then that leadership styles take on the form of stereotypical behaviors and styles assigned men and women based on their sex, not on their actually skills or capabilities.

Authoritative Vs. Interpersonal Attributes

With regard to gender roles and leadership styles, there are certain characteristics that are more often attributed to men than women. Men are more typically ascribed as having authoritative characteristics which include a style that is assertive, confident, aggressive, forceful, independent, daring and competitive (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001; Eagly et. al, 2000).

Women on the other hand in employment settings are more often associated with traits such as a concern for the well being of employees, and a leadership style that is more sympathetic, interpersonal, nurturing and gentle (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001). Thus in an employment environment women may more often unfortunately be seen as more likely to avoid drawing attention to themselves and supporting and soothing others rather than leading them.

Does the assignment of a leadership position eliminate the influence of gender roles? Research in corporate settings suggests that "although some gender-stereotypic differences erode under the influence of organizational roles, others do not" (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001, p. 781).

One study using an experience sampling methodology suggested that strong stereotypically male 'Authoritative' behavior was controlled relative to the status of a person engaged in an interaction, however 'communal' behaviors often attributed to female gender roles were indeed still influenced by the sex of people engaged in interaction regardless of their status (Eagly, et. al, 2000; Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

The research does support the notion that leaders whether male or female must carry out the same required activities. The manner in which they are carried out and the manner in which decisions are made however are up to an individual's discretion, and may vary according to gender.

Some research argues that gender influenced behavior results when "gendered expectancies" are put upon leaders by individuals reactions to them and a leaders response to such expectancies; further the research supports the notion that many people internalize gender roles and reflect those roles in their leadership style (Eagly et. al, 2000; Wood, Christensen, Hebl & Rothgerber, 1997; Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

Ely (1995) suggests that because of different social identities, men and women have different expectations of their own behavior in organization settings, and create self-definitions of what they believe a good leadership style to be; these definitions may reflect "a blending of their managerial role and gender role" (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001, p. 782).

One study conducted of the influence of self-definition of managers and its influence on leadership style suggests that men score slightly higher than women on scales that assessed the desire to "manifest competitive and assertive qualities in managing" (Eagly, Karau, Miner & Johnson, 1994; from Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001, p. 782).

There is some evidence that suggests that women elicit negative opinions and evaluations when they exhibit traditionally 'male' behaviors such as competitiveness and assertiveness. This may be attributed in part to gender stereotyping, or to cultural norms which contribute to the notion that women are better at interpersonal tasks and men are better at assertive/management type roles. In an organization that is male dominated, it is likely that this type of thinking is more difficult to overcome than in one that is more equally mixed.

Similarity of Leadership Styles to Traditional Gender Roles

Research also suggests that congruity should exist between traditional male and female gender and leadership roles. Some studies argue that incongruity between female gender roles and typical leadership roles (often male oriented) "tends to create prejudice toward female leaders and potential leaders" in the form of less favorable evaluation of women's potential for leadership and less favorable evaluation of actual leadership style (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001, p. 782). Thus women are less well evaluated if they exhibit Authoritative or typically masculine behaviors.

Many of the typical female "stereotypical qualities" are often qualities that are not favored in leaders, thus males are automatically assumed to be more fit for the role of leader than women are (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001). Women are also more often expected to demonstrate characteristic communal leadership styles; in fact this style is thought to be 'preferred' in women, and women who violate this stereotypical style may be evaluated negatively as a consequence (Eagly & Johannesen, 2001, p. 782).

Conforming to a gender role that assumes that women are not assertive and competitive however may jeopardize a woman's chances for success and achievement in the role of a leader. There is a greater potential for prejudice in the workforce against women because a woman's stereotypical gender role varies more significantly from a traditional leadership role than a male gender role does. Thus negative sanctions are more likely to be employed against potential women leaders than men (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001, p. 782).

Types of Leadership Style

There are many different approaches to leadership. Among the more common include a task-oriented leadership style and an interpersonal oriented style. The task oriented style more often demands structured organization, explicit rules conformance and maintenance of high standards as well as a demand that subordinates produce a high level of performance (Eagly & Johannesen, 2001, p. 782). An interpersonal leadership style however often includes behaviors including helping others, supporting and helping out subordinates rather than encouraging them to simply follow rules and procedures and looking out for the welfare of employees (Eagly & Johannesen, 2001, p. 782).

Leadership styles can also include the tendency of an individual to behave in a manner that encourages group decision making or a more autocratic and domineering style which commands more obedient and less participative behavior from subordinates (Bass, 1990; Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001). This tendency toward being more democratic vs. more autocratic usually is also often associated more often to gender roles, with men more likely to demonstrate autocratic leadership styles and females more prone to demonstrate democratic styles according to research (Bass, 1990; Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

Other research suggests that women demonstrate more transformational leadership styles characterized by communal behaviors and individual consideration such as mentoring, whereas a transactional style characterized by establishing exchange relationships with subordinates is more often a male leadership style (Hackman, Fumiss, Hills & Paterson, 1992; Ross & Offermann, 1997). Thus one may conclude that male leadership styles are more often considered task-oriented and autocratic whereas female leaders are more often considered communal leaders (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001, p. 782).

These differences are often minimal in nature however, and again more often associated with expectancies rather than the actual skills of males vs. females. People often behave in the way that they are expected to. If an organization expects that a male leader then, is more likely to be successful because he will be aggressive and assertive, then they are more likely to promote a male to this role.

The main categories of leadership style may be categorized as follows: task-oriented, autocratic, interpersonal and democratic. The latter two are more often associated with female leadership styles. Task and interpersonal styles are compared with democratic and autocratic styles in many studies (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). An actual analysis of these styles was conducted by Eagly and Johnson in 1990. The study suggested that men and women did not vary significantly with regard to task oriented style, and a very small tendency of women were more interpersonally oriented than men; however men were clearly more autocratic and directive whereas women were more democratic and participative than men in the study (Eagly & Johnson, 1990).

It is important to note that a democratic and participative style can be very beneficial and productive for organizations. There is no body of research which suggests that an autocratic style is more effective than a democratic one in a large majority of organizations. The success of one style vs. another is largely dependent on the features of an organizational environment (Vroom & Yetton, 1973; Foels, Driskell, Mullen & Salas, 2000).

Prejudice against female leaders and leadership style more often occurs in situations where a position is considered male dominated or thought to require more male oriented stereotypical qualities such as assertiveness, aggressiveness and competitiveness (Eagly & Karau, 2001).

In other studies the following was found: men are more task oriented than women and more effective in a leadership role when the leader role was congruent with male than female gender role; however women were more task oriented and effective in their role when the leadership role was more congruent with the female than male traditional gender role (Eagly & Johannesen, 2001, p. 782). Thus, if a male or female occupies a leadership role that is incongruent with their gender role their will be perceived as lacking the skills necessary to effectively manage tasks in their leadership role and environment (Eagly & Johannesen, 2001, p. 782).

Other differences in leadership style between men and women are considered small but in some cases significant. Women generally show more individual consideration, influence and motivation attributes than men, thus are perceived as having a greater ability to motivate followers because they build pride and respect in them while in a leadership role (Eagly & Johannesen, 2001). Men are more often identified as paying attention to problems and mistakes, uninvolved at critical times but also effective leaders despite this (Eagly & Johannesen, 2001).

Generally findings suggest that in some situations female managers may be more effective than male managers particularly with regard to transformational leadership styles (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001, p. 782). This may be because women have to work harder and maintain a better performance in order to stay in leadership roles because they are more often cast a critical eye.

Leadership styles tend to be very gender specific and stereotypical. People often act in a manner that is expected of them. Women's leadership styles tend to be more democratic than men's leadership styles.

Opportunities for Promotion of Females

Women's opportunities for promotion may be influenced by traditional gender roles and stereotypical beliefs about an individual's ability based on gender. Stelter cites Carless (1998) who finds that superiors "May rely more on gender stereotypes and assumptions in describing and rating male and female leadership effectiveness and performance" (Stelter, 2002, p. 88). Further research fins that women leaders more often suffer from negative evaluations when their behaviors fall outside of an evaluator's expectations of behavioral norms according to gender (Stelter, 2002).

Gender role perceptions are created "through an interaction between culture and social expectations; gender roles can be generalized to organizational roles, including those in leadership positions" (Stelter, 2002, p. 88). Thus if leaders and other influential members of organizations limit female employees to traditional or stereotypical roles women are less likely to be promoted into traditional 'male dominated' or oriented roles which may include leadership positions.

Perception of leadership effectiveness is often directly related to gender lines, and often defined by relative personal, social and cultural characteristics (Stelter, 2002). Expectations about gender roles and leadership roles largely influence an individuals potential for success in an organization (Stelter, 2002).

If a woman seeks a promotion or undertakes a leadership role in a n organization "she brings into the role her gender, culturally defined female aspects as an integrated part of her personal history and her profession" (Lorenzen, 1996, p. 30). This may include more interpersonal oriented behaviors which may be perceived as less favorable in organizations and attributed to decreased leadership effectiveness (Oakley, 2000) whether or not this is a valid case.

Leaders are traditional evaluated as stronger and more competent when they exhibit autocratic rather than democratic styles in an organization (Luthar, 1996) a tendency which favors male rather than female promotions within an organization.

With regard to social status within organizations female leaders are more often perceived negatively by a majority of researchers which impacts their potential for promotion (Stelter, 2002; Lucas & Lovaglia, 1998). In the context of social status, female leaders are more often perceived negatively and this difference may account for "any hiring, promotion or salary differences where the perception of women leaders is influenced by a social or cultural status, beliefs and attitudes that view women as less than male counterparts" (Stelter, 2002, p. 88; Luthar, 1996).

Some studies find that with regard to male and female leadership styles, tasks or projects that are completed successfully that are led by male leaders are more often attributed to the skills and abilities of the leader, whereas when a task is completed successfully by a female leader the success is more often attributed to luck or some other organizational factor rather than the woman's skills and abilities as a leader (Stelter, 2002; Sywensky & Madden, 1996).

Employee's perceptions of a leader are more often influenced by organizational cultural and social ideals (Stelter, 2002).

The traditional American corporation generally exhibits a pyramid shape with multiple layers of managers, where the supervisor is responsible for ensuring that the work of subordinates is completed on time and in a satisfactory manner (Ash & Stevens, 2001).

Depending on the corporation being examined supervisors may exude a minimal amount or a large amount of influence on individual work tasks; typically management situations in organizations today range from traditional supervisor-subordinate relationships to those where desirable leadership skills include the ability to coach and facilitate self-directed work teams (Ash & Stevens, 2001). This shift suggests that women may be more effective as leaders using transformational and interpersonal styles of management, IF they are promoted and given the chance to demonstrate their leadership ability.

Perceptions of male vs. female leaders do vary across varying organizational contexts and within cultural contexts (Maher, 1997).

With regard to promoting women there is a large body of research which suggests that a 'glass ceiling' or invisible barrier still exists that prevents women from advancing to the highest levels of most organizations within the U.S. (Lemons, 2003). Studies conducted of women in the 1990s showed that women held 1.2 to 5.1% of senior management positions; statistics from the U.S. Department of Labor shows that the overall market continues to show that women still face an invisible barrier with regard to promotions (Lemons, 2003; U.S. Department of Labor, 1995; Wootten, 1997).

Women who are denied promotions are just as capable and often have the same skill sets and qualifications that men who are offered the promotions have (Lemons, 2003). Thus one may conclude that organizational barriers rather than a lack of skills or qualifications are preventing women from achieving leadership positions in organizations (Lemons, 2003; White, 1992; Chen, Meindl & Hui, 1998).

Lemons (2003) concludes that organizational perceptions and cultural factors may contribute to a glass ceiling and decisions for promotion within an organization.

Though there are many policies such as affirmative action policies that have increased the presence of women in many levels of an organization, strong evidence still suggests that women still find it difficult "to break into male dominated fields" (Kerry, Miller & Reid, 1999). In addition, many studies still show that women face glass walls and ceilings at multiple levels of an organization (Kerr, Miller & Reid, 1999).

Method Results

Significance of the Study Plan of the Study

Corporations must consistently seek new ways to keep talented women from leaving organizations because of a lack of promotional opportunities. Women face many obstacles in corporate America, as evidenced by the literature review. Depending on the corporate culture, many women still face gender stereotypes which are often transferred into a leadership assessment. Many organizations attribute common leadership traits such as competitiveness, assertion and aggression with male rather than female leaders.

Research Hypothesis Scope

This study evaluates primarily the senior leadership opportunities available to females in the American workforce. The aim of the study is to uncover truths with regard to:

Male vs. Female leadership styles

Promotion opportunities for women

Specifically, the fieldwork portion of the study will examine what factors are critical to the advancement of women in leadership roles within an organization. The aim of the study is also to explore what 'limits' organizations may place on women or believe to be in place that prevent women from becoming effective leaders. Barriers to success will be evaluated so that a concrete resolution and plan for promoting female leaders within organizations can be effectively developed.

To that extent the literature review portion of the study examines whether institutional culture is influenced by male vs. female leadership styles and what styles are more commonly demonstrated by one gender vs. another. It also examines whether organizational changes are perceived as positive or negative based on the gender of the leaders involved in change.

Nature of Study/Data Collection Instrument

This study is exploratory in nature. For purposes of the fieldwork portion of this study, a survey was developed and conducted of male and female leaders in different organizations, to assess their perceptions of the impact female vs. male leaders have on the workforce and on the organizational culture. In addition survey respondents were asked to provide what they believed would be the most effective techniques for advancing women managers into the executive ranks of corporations.

Population Sample

Twenty + male and female employees working in varying industries were asked to participate in the study. The majority of respondents were either Managers, Supervisors, Executives or classified themselves as 'Other' for purposes of the study.

Data and background information on both leadership style differences and on female opportunities will be examined.

Data Analysis

The information was evaluated and compared with the information gained from the literature review in order to determine whether a correlation exists between actual practices in companies and past research/historical practices of companies. From the information gathered from the survey and the literature review, the author will make educated conclusions regarding the status of women in the workforce.

Discussion

The survey results indicate that among the factors that impact the image of women in senior executive management positions include the following: a male oriented work culture, attitudes of male associates, and even perception's of a women's ability to run a business. This corresponds directly to the results of the literature review which suggest that women are still limited in the workforce particularly in management positions due in part to a male oriented culture and attitudes of employees. The information reaped from the literature review suggests in part that these attitudes are partly the result of gender stereotypes that typecast women in roles that are traditionally more nurturing than those of men.

The literature review suggests that common male leadership attributes include an autocratic style, competitive and aggressive nature and assertion. Women leaders are more often characterized as democratic, interpersonal and nurturing. This is due in part to gender stereotypes which place males/females in these roles.