Effects of technology on learning in elementary special education

¶ … technology in learning of elementary school special ed. Students

Action Research Paper:

Effects and Impact of Technology in Learning of Elementary School Special Education Students

The use of technologies to assist in the teaching of special education elementary school children presents unique challenges and illustrates how the creative use of Web-based learning systems can accelerate and support the long-term retention of concepts with these specific students. It is the intent of this Action Research paper to illustrate how this is specifically can be accomplished through the use of a variety of teaching techniques. Despite the potential benefits of using technology-based training there is however there is a lack of adoption of Web-based training materials, websites, and strategies specifically focused on individualized learning plans including scaffolding. The reliance on traditional forms of didactic teaching however have continued to falter and not fully take into account the specific needs of these children. Through the use of primary research as defined in this Action Research paper, specific recommendations for transforming purely didactic and often statically-defined study programs into more tailored and customized ones that compensate for individual student strengths and weaknesses are presented in this Action Research paper. Through a combination of observational approaches to collecting data and the introduction of specific Web-based applications (applets) to test the student's ability to perceive, interpret and learn from interacting with them. Specifically focusing on mathematical concepts, as they are difficult often for students to conceptualize, this Action Research paper introduces the concepts of Java applets as small, self-contained applications comparable to online learning sites in portability and performance. The implications of teaching elementary school special education students through this online approach has not specifically been tested before, and is unique in that it conceptualizes and shows graphically how mathematical concepts work. It is the intention of this Action Research paper to specifically illustrate how effective teaching the more difficult to conceptualize areas of learning for special education elementary school students including mathematics and the elements of statistics.

Background and statement of the problem

Teaching mathematical and statistical concepts through purely didactic methods has proven to be ineffective in assisting students to gain mastery of even the most fundamental concepts. The "drill & kill" approach to teaching is far less effective than one that concentrates on illustrating through graphical approaches to concept navigation and presentation how complex concepts can be simplified. The problem of attempting to teach through traditional approaches is clear in their lack of effectiveness as special needs elementary school students often struggle to gain insights into how to internalize and then apply the concepts shown. It is the intent of this Action Research paper to discuss how this can specifically be alleviated through the use of Java applets to aid elementary school special education students to learn and retain more fundamental skill sets regarding mathematics and statistics.

Purpose and Research Questions

Many instructors consider statistics one of the more difficult sciences to teach and have retained by elementary school special needs students, as it requires mathematical ability and an interest in numerical analysis, combined with the ability to handle quantitative and qualitative data, and an interest in defining complex analytical relationships graphically. Given the exponential growth in data and its corresponding specialization in those career areas that require a correspondingly high level of expertise in statistical concepts and techniques. The application of these techniques yields insights that are not intuitively obvious to students, professors, and professionals who examine and evaluate data sets. The wealth of insights available for data sets, from the research efforts of students, professors and researchers requires a commitment to continual learning and fine-tuning of statistical techniques. This is critical if any member of these three constituencies is to glean grater insights and therefore more focused strategies based on the use of statistical techniques.

Yet ironically the greater the demand for more state-of-the-art techniques available from statistical analysis, the lesser the corresponding growth in teaching techniques to communicate them. Paradoxically as the value of statistical analysis and therefore education continues to increase significantly yet the methods and approaches for teaching statistics follow the guidelines established by our grandfathers during the fifties and sixties. An entire generation of analytical tools and techniques in terms of statistical analysis has since been created, and teaching methods and approaches need to stay current with these latest advances in statistical techniques and methods of analysis.

In conjunction with the growth in statistical analysis techniques, there have been corresponding advances in global networks and communications, made possible through the development of the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW), which is called the Web for short. Increasingly students are relying on the Internet to accomplish their learning objectives, and this is especially true in the areas of mathematics and statistical analysis. As the Internet has progressed and programming tools have become more sophisticated and capable of delivering greater insights than has been the case in the past.

Both the rapid developments in Internet technologies that have driven the development of the World Wide Web (WWW), and the development of extensive applications which capitalize on the unique data integration and presentation capabilities of the World Wide Web (WWW) have set the foundation for completely re-defining teaching and instruction of basic statistics education. The combined effects of the World Wide Web (WWW) and Java technology are making it possible to deliver more intuitive and graphically-based approaches to statistics education. As the speed of the World Wide Web (WWW), has dramatically increased with the growth of broadband, combined with the development of thin-client Java applets, advances are being made by educators in using interactive and highly illustrative examples where data sets from actual case studies are shown. Java applets are capable of providing each student with a highly interactive and focused learning session, making the specific statistical concepts more understandable than has been the case in the past.

Context of the Action Research Study

The objective of this study is to quantify and measure the effects of Java-based applet instruction methods on elementary school special needs students' levels of achievement, attitudes towards learning statistics, and overall satisfaction with an introductory statistics analysis when compared to traditional forms of math and statistics instruction.

The methodology for the study is based on observation of elementary school special needs students in a classroom, sampling 37 students who were taught using Java-based instruction as the control group and 38 students who received traditional instructions. These two groups were then compared by observing their performance scores of online tests exclusively, and tests completed using both in-class testing and online tests as well. The intent is to isolate academic achievement based on Web-based instruction exclusively to measure the performance of students when they are taught using Java-based applets over the Internet.

This study also specifically concentrates on the use of scaffolding techniques (Najjar, 2008) in conjunction with traditional classroom instruction and the use of Web-based applications to teach students core mathematical and statistical concepts. Specifically concentrating on the needs of elementary school special needs students through the use of websites, applets and online tools that are specific to their individual needs for mathematical and statistical concepts, this Action Research paper seeks to isolate the effectiveness of Java-based applets in simplifying the more complex concepts of mathematical and statistical studies.

Summary

The Action Research study specifically illustrates that Java-based instruction of mathematics and statistics has proven to be effective in significantly increasing the level of performance for elementary school special needs students. This Action Research paper also specifically found that students found the newness and novelty of learning through the use of Java applets preferable to the use of traditional approaches to learning including the over-reliance on Microsoft PowerPoint presentations on the part of instructors or the rough-hand drawing of concepts on a white board. The combining of Web-based applications and in-class instruction was superior to traditional teaching methods.

CHAPTER 2

Review of the Literature

Introduction

There has been widespread interest in using technologies to solve critical problems in elementary school special needs education. Exploration of the Internet as a teaching and learning tool is expanding. As the Internet becomes more integrated into students' lives, more teachers begin to combine face-to-face and online instruction, in hope of exploring a new way that is the most effective and positively related to student learning. If the materials can be presented in a variety of formats, then the students can have a greater chance of success. This the basis of the research completed in this Action Research paper.

An easy-to-implement approach is to make course-related materials available on the web. According to Levy (2005), a "web-enhanced course" uses the web to distribute course materials and provide students with online resources. Professors who have integrated their teaching into the Internet have been able to hold the attention of their students and direct them to any form of interactive learning tools necessary for their total understanding of a concept discussed in class. Benefiting from a wider range of online presentations, the approach has resulted in students' increased attentiveness and motivation (Basile and D'Aquila, 2002).

For the purposes of this review, Web-based instruction is considered to be any educational or training program distributed over the Internet or an intranet and conveyed through a browser, such as Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator. Java applet-based instruction is a special form of Web-based instruction.

Although there is very little research on comparing the effectiveness of Java applet-based instruction to the traditional face-to-face offering. However Web-based instruction has received enough attention that many studies are now available in the research literature.

Comparing the learning effects of Web-based learning with traditional face-to-face teaching and learning is emphasized in the research on the Internet as a medium in higher education. However, these research studies always produce conflicting results. Researchers found significant differences, positive or negative, in using different Internet-based approaches to facilitate teaching and learning.

This literature review explores three dominant themes: impact on student performance, student attitude, and student satisfaction. While Statistics is the subject area of this particular research study, the scope of this literature review is expanded to research that examines the dominant themes, regardless of the specific academic subject area.

Student Performance

Studies found Web-based learning had a positive effect on students' performance. To date, the most methodologically sound investigation to evaluate the effectiveness of online instruction was conducted by Gerald Schutte (1996). Schutte conducted a study in a Social Statistics course at California State University, Northridge. Thirty-three students were randomly divided into two groups, one taught in a traditional classroom and the other taught virtually on the World Wide Web. Text, lectures and exams were standardized between the two groups. The results demonstrated the virtual class scored an average 20% higher than the traditional class on both examinations.

Numerous studies also supported the significant increases in learning outcomes for online learners over their traditional counterparts.

In a comprehensive study from Agarwal and Day (1998), students' achievements within a fully developed Web-based Instruction (WBI) course were compared with a traditional two-semester course in Economics. In the WBI course, e-mail and mailing lists were used to address student questions regarding the learning material. The WWW.wasused for presenting class-related information (syllabi, schedules, projects, and assignments) and for completing Web projects that required students to use information from the Internet. Results showed that the use of WBI had a positive influence on students' learning, both for examination scores and final grades, compared with a traditional course.

Day, Raven, and Newman (1998) compared and studied the effects of Web-based vs. traditional instruction on students' achievement in undergraduate technical writing in an agricommunication course. They found that online students attained significantly higher achievement scores in the major class project and essay assignments than those in the traditional course.

Navarro and Shoemaker (2000) studied 151 students enrolled in a traditional class format and 49 in a cyberspace format. The cyberspace course provided lectures on CD-ROM, electronic bulletin, electronic mail (e-mail), and chat rooms for asynchronous discussions. Additionally, online discussion rooms were available for synchronous discourse. Students in the online format performed significantly better in the course as reflected in their final exam grade.

Dutton, Dutton and Perry (2001) compared traditional face-to-face lectures with WBI. They found that students in the WBI version of a course in a computer language did significantly better than undergraduate students in the lecture version of the class, both in final examinations and in grades (which were based on lab program average, homework, programming projects, tests, and the final examination).

Dutton, Dutton and Perry (2001) also studied 68 pre-service teachers in a Computers and Education class. The class was divided into two groups, one that used e-mail as a mode of communication for supplementary materials and one that did not. The authors focused on the grades received by the two different groups, and claim that the use of e-mail improves student performance. The authors reported a statistically significant difference in academic performance between the two groups, with the e-mail group performing significantly better than the non-e-mail group. However, the authors did not have a pre-intervention measure of their performance. Although the participation in the classes was assigned randomly, not obtaining a baseline measure of performance to compare the two groups before the intervention lessens the causal strength of their argument.

Al-Jarf and Sado (2002) investigated two groups of freshmen students in their first ESL writing course and found the experimental group (Web-based instruction) made more gains in writing, became more efficient, made fewer errors, and communicated more easily and fluently, compared with the traditional classroom control group.

Carey (2001) evaluated a Web-based interactive tutorial used to present hypothesis testing concepts. Students either used the interactive tutorial or completed a standard laboratory assignment covering the same topics. Students who used the tutorial performed better on a quiz than students who completed the standard laboratory, supporting the effectiveness of online tutorial. (Levy, 2005) compared the learning effectiveness of a methods course in learning disability delivered in traditional format and a graduate course on ADD/ADHD conducted online using WebCT. Results of analyzing self-reported survey data indicated the online course was effective for students to gain knowledge regarding ADD/ADHD concepts and skills, and to improve technological skills.

Studies also showed that Web-enhanced learning, with course materials available on the Web aside from face-to-face instruction, was positively related to students' learning outcome. In a study of a solid waste management course, Other researchers have found the use of Web-enhancements had a very positive effect on the solid waste management course. Some of the benefits observed are that students arrive at class better prepared for the material to be presented and that student focus can be directed to the important topics. Student comments indicate that they have little preparation to do immediately prior to an exam and they know which topics they must review to be ready for the exam. In his study of three-semester length courses with a large mathematical component, (Basile, D'Aquila, 2002) found that grades had increased in Web-enhanced courses compared to a previous semester when the lecture notes were not available. Many students during the semester stated that they liked being able to print the lecture notes and bring them to class so they could add their comments to the printed outline.

Contrasting to the positive results, a few studies have shown better performance in lecture courses. Waits, Lewis (2003) found that traditional methods of teaching a laboratory component in a research design course were superior to computer-based methods of teaching. Schulman & Sims (1999) found no difference on midterm examinations for Web-based and lecture versions of statistical methods courses, they reported better performance on the final examination in the lecture course. Waits & Lewis (2003) compared lecture and Web-based sections of introductory psychology. Mean performance was higher in lecture classes than in Web-based classes, but the difference was significant only on the final examination when students self-selected sections.

Studies also abound demonstrating "no significant difference" in student performance in traditional and Web-based college courses. Johnson (2002) conducted a comparison study of all Web-based class to a traditional class and also found no significant difference in GPA between online and traditional learners. In a study that compiled 50 years of research comparing different delivery methods of instruction, (Dutton, Dutton, Perry, 2001) found no significant differences in learning outcomes when looking only at the medium of delivering instruction. Schulman and Sims (1999) did not find any significant differences on the posttest scores between the online and traditional students in an undergraduate course. Clark (1983) found no differences in performance data (course and examination work) between a traditional and a WBI undergraduate course in Sports Science. He also confirmed results from previous research showing that there is little or no difference in student learning outcomes when online learning is compared with on-campus classroom experiences. Ryan (2000) compared online and traditional student performance in construction equipment and methods classes and found no significant differences in performance between the two groups. Based on a study of comparing outcomes of an online and face-to-face advanced English course, Day, Raven, Newman, (1997) concluded that there were no significant differences between students in the online courses compared to students in the face-to-face courses in terms of course retention or course grade. These researchers also found no significant differences in performance in an introductory biology class.

Several other studies have found no differences in learning outcomes in various courses between online and traditional learner. A study was conducted by Ryan (2000) to compare the differences in the achievement of students who studied senior high advanced mathematics by distance education and students who studied senior high advanced mathematics by traditional means. Results showed that distance education students were as successful in achievement in senior high advanced mathematics as traditionally taught students.

No significant differences were reported (Schulman, Sims, 1999) for a long-term delivery of a WBI computing course in comparison to a traditional lecture. Web content presentations consisted not only of an audio track and a set of associated visuals with a linear structure based on a traditional (control group) lecture, but also a searchable index of topics, and Web-based assessments and communication.

Nesler, Hanner, Melburg, and McGowan (2001) assessed comparative data obtained from students enrolled in one of two versions (face-to-face and online) of a graduate HR development course. Students were assessed prior to the start of the course and demographic data compared: no significant differences were found in age, year of graduation, work experience, or achievement. Students were then surveyed (as the course progressed) on their learning outcomes. The quality of projects produced did not differ significantly across groups, nor did their grade distribution. The authors remark clearly that the effectiveness of face-to-face vs. online teaching (as measured by scores) does not differ across the two groups.

Clark (1983) studied 61 university students in either an online or traditional section of a public speaking course. They compared performance (both self-assessed and independently assessed) across the two conditions by means of a pre- and post-test questionnaire and independent assessment by an expert. They found that both self-reports and the expert reports showed no significant difference between learning public speaking in either of the two formats. Students reported enjoying the online format for flexibility in time and locale. Students in the traditional format reported enjoying the interaction with their classmates and the feeling that they learned as a group (seen as important for a subject such as public speaking). The authors pointed out that, although learning seems to be equivalent across the sections, membership in the groups was not randomly assigned. Thus, although these results demonstrated that students can learn equally well in both sections, the authors caution that it may not be true of all students in general; that is, students may have selected the format that most suited their learning style. In particular, they noted that online sections were chosen more often by males, who did not perceive group learning as important as females did, and by students who had access to a computer.

A study to determine the learning an outcome between live instruction and interactive television in a research course was reported (Dutton, Dutton, Perry, 2001). The study was designed to evaluate the performance between students in a face-to face environment with students taking the course simultaneously at a remote site by interactive television. When students at both locations were evaluated, no significant difference was found in the performance of the students.

In a study by Johnson, Aragon, Shaik, Palma-Rivas (2000), 79 elementary preservice teachers enrolled in Elementary Science Teaching Methods Courses were randomly assigned to the online and the in-class groups. The experimental group completed the modules online outside of class and submitted their assignments electronically. The in-class group completed the same modules physically in the classroom. Students were assessed using pre and post content tests as indicators of achievement. Results indicated no significant difference in scores between those who worked online and those who worked in-class.

Caywood and Duckett (2003) looked at 116 university students enrolled in a business course in one of two sections (face-to-face and Web-based lectures). The Web-based lectures, unlike some of the other papers, did not constitute a huge change from the traditional format, but rather were minimally adapted to be available for Web access. The authors measured performance on a pre-test and a post-test. They found no significant differences between the two groups on any of the measures, but did find, not surprisingly, that students who were more motivated performed better in both formats. They use these findings to argue that instructors who are planning to offer their courses in Web format can do so with "minimum redesign," a finding contradicted by much of the other research. One aspect of this study worth mentioning is that they provide an analysis of performance based on ethnicity. They find no significant difference in performance across groups, offering a nice control for future research.

In Rivera, McAlister and Rice's 2002 study, one section of an introductory management information systems course was offered almost exclusively via the Web, another was taught in the traditional classroom setting and a third was a hybrid of traditional supported by the course management system WebCT. Class enrollment averaged 45 per section. No differences in student performance (as measured by exam scores) were found.

Schutte (1999) reported that a study by Robert Carlisle at California State University, Bakersfield found that 917 students made significant gains regardless of what resource they used. Carlisle concluded that it doesn't matter whether the class is online, face-to-face, or on television, all students are making significant gains regardless. This four-year study found that students utilizing material and classes online produced slightly higher scores, but not a significant difference vs. face-to-face learning.

Phipps & Merisotis (1999) compared the achievement of 60 university pre-service teachers who are learning to teach English as a Second Language (ESL). Through a series of measures, they evaluated learning in either a Web-based section or a traditional lecture-based section of the same course. They had a very clean experimental design, in that they measured performance on a pre-test prior to the class, compared the means of the two sections, and then measured performance on a post-test and compared the two means again. They found significant differences between the groups on the pre-test, with the lecture-instructed students demonstrating better performance. On the post-test, they found no significant differences between groups. They used these data to argue that the online students learned more during the class, although there is no significant difference in the change in scores between the two groups.

Caywood and Duckett (2003) compared a graduate-level special education course delivered online via e-College vs. On campus. Students' performance was measured through three standard multiple-choice quizzes. No significant difference was identified in students' initial learning.

Levy and colleagues (2005) compared student achievement of a special education course conducted in three different formats: traditional classroom instruction, online instruction using WebCT, and class-in-a-box instruction via multimedia CD-ROMs. Data were collected from pre- and post-test for knowledge acquisition. Results of data analysis showed no significant difference in student achievement.

Steinweg, Davis, and Thomson (2005) investigated student performance to compare the effectiveness of online and traditional F2F instruction of an introductory special education course. The online class was asynchronous using the course management system Blackboard. Typical class activities and assignments were the same for both instructional formats. Findings of the study indicated no significant difference in student performance measured by pre- and post-test and scores of class projects between online and traditional F2F instruction.

Student Attitude

In addition to grades as indicators of learning success, student attitude may be equally important.

Some studies show differences favouring Web-based courses. Clark (1994) meta-analysis on computer-based instruction found that students learn more in less time when they receive computer-based instruction and that students like their classes more and develop more positive attitudes. Day, Raven, and Newman (1998) compared and studied the effects of Web-based vs. traditional instruction on students' attitudes in undergraduate technical writing in an agricommunication course. The researchers found that online students obtained a higher mean gain in attitudes toward writing.

1998) conducted a study to assess the impact of Web-based instruction upon student attitude in freshmen and sophomore level economics courses. Results of this study indicate the use of the World Wide Web in economics classes makes economics more interesting to students and, according to students, increases their learning of economics.

Nesler, Hanner, Melburg and McGowan (2000) examined 62 undergraduate Human Physiology students' attitudes about computer learning. Pre- and post-computer intervention questionnaires were administered to the class, and perceptions of usefulness and effectiveness of computer-based learning (CBL) were assessed. The survey found a substantial shift in attitude post-intervention, reflecting more positive student attitudes to CBL. The authors noted that on the pre-test students rated themselves as either comfortable with computers or rather afraid of them. By the post-test, almost all of the students rated themselves as comfortable with computers, although a small minority still reported what they call "technophobia." The authors remarked that it is encouraging to see a positive change in attitudes through experience with computers, but that there may be a small group of students disinclined towards using CBL. Overall however, students rated their learning experience as enjoyable and believed that they learned as much by this method as they did in traditional lecture classes. Despite the positive attitudes expressed by the students, the authors were cautious in recommending changes to curriculum. Students reported that they enjoyed the class but did not see it as an improvement over traditional class methods, and the majority of students still believed they would prefer at least some instruction in traditional lecture form. In addition, the students reported enjoying the flexibility CBL afforded them, but also said that they liked the structure a traditional lecture gave to their day. The authors argue that there is a role for structured and limited use of CBL to augment traditional classrooms, but that there is probably opposition to changing toward a complete CBL curriculum.

Hughes and Hagie (2005) examined student's perception of online and traditional face-to-face instruction. Findings of their study indicated positive responses towards online learning such as the flexible time scheduling, freedom in expressing ideas and comments online, and elimination of non-essential conversation in online discussion. Challenges reported by students included difficulty in managing time to complete online tasks, the lack of immediate feedback from instructors or peers in the discussion group, and inadequate personal contact.

Other investigations have shown an enhanced effect of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) on attitudes toward the course supported by CAI (Al-Jarf, Sado, 2002), (Carey, 2001) and (Caywood, Duckett, 2003) on attitudes toward computers (Levy, 2005).

Web-based or enhanced learning was also found associated with positive learning attitude. By examining the integration of computer-delivered listening comprehension exercises into the university-level foreign language curriculum, (Johnson, 2002) found that students tend to learn more effectively or efficiently using the computer delivery system. Students in the computer group have a more positive attitude towards language learning in general. In a study on how Web-based materials enhanced teaching and learning in an introductory operations management course. (Phipps, Merisotis, 1999) found that the Website facilitated students' note taking and studying, enhanced class discussion, and aided retention; it did not encourage students to miss class, as some faculty feared. Levy (2005) concluded in his study of Web-based learning that students were on the whole positively inclined to work with the web and found it useful. Not only did the students involved in Web-based learning have high levels of enjoyment, their levels of enjoyment also increased over time. In a semester-long exploratory study that focused on the effects of Web-centric learning on student learning outcome in an MBA program, (Agarwal, Day, 1998) concluded that Web-centric learning environments have a positive effect on student social interaction, involvement with course content, technical skills, and overall learning experience.

In contrast, some students in other studies have indicated a preference for the traditional classroom format. Johnson, Aragon, Shaik, and Palma-Rivas (2000) assessed comparative data obtained from students enrolled in one of two versions (face-to-face and online) of a graduate HR development course. Students were surveyed (as the course progressed) on their self-assessment of ability. The face-to-face group scored significantly higher in most other attitudinal measures, such as student-instructor satisfaction, instructor support, and departmental support.

Another line of research supported the "no significant phenomenon." LaRose, Gregg, and Eastin (1998) conducted a study that compared the learning outcomes of students in a traditional lecture section with students who participated in a course section that provided pre-recorded audio via the WWW.alongwith detailed course outlines and related course pages accessed on the Web. Results showed that the Web group had student attitude ratings equal to those of the traditional section.

Student Satisfaction

The main goal of college courses is to produce student learning, but student satisfaction with the course is another important consideration. Relatively few studies have compared student satisfaction in Web-based and lecture courses and, as with the performance and attitude measures, the results are mixed.

Unfortunately, only very few studies show positive WBI effects on student satisfaction. (Agarwal, Day, 1998) in a study assessing distance education in a university setting, found that students were satisfied with online instruction because it provided flexibility and responsiveness to their learning requirements and expectations.

Liu (2003a) conducted a comparative study to investigate whether there were significant differences in student evaluation of instruction in a graduate educational research course simultaneously taught by the same instructor between an online WebCT section and a traditional section. Results indicated students in the online section expressed greater satisfaction of the effectiveness of their learning in this course. A majority of students in the online section thought they had learned more in this course than from a traditional section.

In contrast, some students in other studies have indicated a preference for the traditional classroom format in addition Johnson, Aragon, Shaik, Palma-Rivas, (2000) compared three methods for teaching an introductory course in social work to undergraduate students. One section of the course was taught in the traditional class format, the second using the Internet only, while the third combined the strategies in the first two methods. The results of the study indicated that students preferred learning the content from an instructor rather than the Internet. Students reported that they were unable to learn the content through the Internet and were uncomfortable learning information from only one medium. Also, the students commented that they preferred listening to the content rather than reading it.

Johnson, Aragon, Shaik, and Palma-Rivas (2000) assessed comparative data obtained from students enrolled in one of two versions (face-to-face and online) of a graduate HR development course. Students were then surveyed (as the course progressed) on their perceptions of satisfaction. Students in the face-to-face group scored significantly higher in measures of satisfaction with their course and satisfaction with peer interactions. The authors remark clearly that lowered student satisfaction in online courses with support from instructor and department suggests that future online offerings be modified to ameliorate the situation. In particular, they suggest that instructor feedback on student progress be modified to be more rewarding for the student. (Clark, 1994) found that student satisfaction depends more on the quality and effectiveness of the instructor and the instruction than on the technology. (Clark, 1983) have consistently found higher student satisfaction in lecture sections than in Web-based sections of introductory psychology. Likewise, Sole and Lindquist (2001) found that students preferred learning in a live, traditional classroom format - as opposed to a Web-enhanced video course. Rivera, McAlister and Rice (2002) also found that students were generally satisfied with the traditional and hybrid classes; less so with the online course.

Some studies show no differences at all. Sandercock and Shaw (1999) found no differences in students' course evaluations between a traditional and a WBI undergraduate course in Sports Science. Similar result of no significant differences in student evaluations of the course was also found by Ryan (2000) in construction equipment and methods classes. Wang and Newlin (2000) found almost identical student ratings in their Web-based and lecture courses. Waschull (2001) compared course ratings in his introductory psychology courses and found somewhat higher ratings in the Web-based than in the lecture courses, but the difference was not significant.

Spooner, Jordan, Algozzine, and Spooner (1999), reported student ratings for two courses taught in both a traditional and distance format by the same instructor. No differences in the students' ratings of the course, instructor, teaching, and communication method were found.

In Yu and Yu's 2001 study, they also focused on responses to a post-intervention survey of student perception to e-mail use. In terms of satisfaction with the course, no significant differences were found between the two groups. The authors offered an unconvincing argument to explain why this might be. They claimed that the number of e-mail viruses circulating dampened the enthusiasm of the e-mail intervention group (while presumably not affecting the non-e-mail group), thus resulting in no significant difference. The methodological errors and questionable arguments weaken the strength of the findings presented in this paper.

Caywood and Duckett (2003) compared a graduate-level special education course delivered online via e-College vs. On campus. The ratings of student teachers' performance were measured. No significant difference was identified in follow-up teaching performance.

Skylar and colleagues (2005) compared student satisfaction and instructor course evaluation of a special education course conducted in three different formats: traditional classroom instruction, online instruction using WebCT, and class-in-a-box instruction via multimedia CD-ROMs. Data were collected from student satisfaction survey and course evaluation forms. Results of data analysis showed no significant difference in both outcomes.

There are many advantages suggested for Web-based education. It allows the teaching/learning process to occur at any time and any place. The teacher and learner can communicate over any distance.

Researchers reported greater understanding of the material and a more positive attitude in Web-based courses (Schutte, 1996). It was the conclusion of most researchers that online learning is at worst a neutral factor in student learning and that real learning actually depends on the methodology of the instructor and the needs and perceptions of the students (Waits, Lewis, 2003). What online learning seems to be able to do, when done properly, is to facilitate teachers to teach in a more constructivist context that allows for more student-centered and real learning (Wade, 1999) as well as provide opportunities for students to work independently and communicate anonymously.

But there are also some very real drawbacks along with the advantages to online learning. Probably the number one complaint about the online learning courses involves the use and expectations of technology, including lack of technological expertise, and hardware limitations. Foley and Schuck (1998) have specifically described difficulties associated with system downtime and access resulting in learner resentment. Lack of computer literacy and a reluctance to embrace the technology are reported as significant barriers to deriving optimal benefit from online learning.

Student passivity, learner isolation and perceived more time spent on work are also reported difficulties in effective online learning. Some authors concluded that online learning was only truly effective for mature and prepared learners who select this type of medium for other reasons such as access or flexibility. Other authors stated that it was difficult to develop effective and reliable assessment methods for online class participants.

When discussing the function of media in education, Clark (1983) pointed out that media are mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition. He argued that the choice of vehicle might influence the cost or extent of distributing instruction, but only the content of the vehicle can influence achievement. Another explanation for the "no significant difference" phenomena is that students who select online courses do so because they are mature, responsible learners who expect to succeed in that environment, and hence, are not representative of the larger student population. These capable students would succeed regardless of the course format (Clark, 1983). Clark's argument found support from a study of news media use which demonstrated that regular viewers of TV news share approximately the same average knowledge as regular users of other media. However, a study comparing knowledge acquisition from print and online newspapers showed that the media that carry the information does make a difference in knowledge acquisition about the media content.

Inconsistent as those findings may seem, the results are also far from being conclusive, since two key drawbacks were found in the current research of effect of Web-enhanced learning on student's performance. First, many of the studies do not use randomly selected subjects, which resulted in limited external validity. Second, the studies tended to focus on student learning outcomes of an individual course rather than on their overall college learning experience. The result in learning from one course may not be applicable to other courses. The current status of research on effect of Web-enhanced learning leaves much to be further explored.

This study has focused on how Web-enhanced course materials may affect students' learning outcome and attitude in their program of study. Web-enhancements refer to study guides, course notes, FAQ's, interactive learning tools and resources relevant to the course available on the Internet which enable active learners.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Web-based Learning

While there is quite a high level of interest in Web-based learning, it is not a solution for all distance learning programs, and is not the panacea for all teaching strategies. There are several advantages and disadvantages of this medium and approach to teaching that needs to be kept in mind. While the Internet is ideal for distance learning, it is not suitable for those students who live in areas where Internet access is either sporadic or non-existent. The following are the advantages and disadvantages of Web-based learning.

Advantages of the Web-based Learning to Supplement in-Class Teaching

As a teaching medium, Web-based learning is ideal for distance learning across multiple time zones

Based on the lessons learned from CD ROM-based learning tools, Web-based learning increases enhances learning through greater communication capabilities

By their nature of being formatted for the Web, Web-based learning programs are easy to update

The one-to-many structure of Web-based learning further make it ideal for teaching a wide audience of people from a single facilitator

The flexibility of Web-based learning makes it possible to be either highly formal or informal in the structure of a course.

In many of the Web-based learning programs it is possible to have real-time communications with instructors and learn through doing, especially in the case of online tutorials

Web-based learning is ideal for creating multimedia-based teaching tools that integrate text, graphics, video and animation.

Capable of quickly monitoring the students' progress through a series of tests and online tools to gauge understanding of concepts.

Web-based learning allows students to progress at their own speed of development; at the specific hours they have available for completing the work.

Disadvantages of Web-based Learning to Supplement in-Class Teaching

The majority of disadvantages for Web-based learning are more attributable to technological shortcomings and less from the actual content being delivered. As Web-based learning excels with highly structured content and lessons, it is not suitable for "soft" or highly subjective areas of teaching.

Here are several disadvantages of Web-based learning programs:

There are several technical limitations cause many learning environments in Web-based learning to resemble the early days of Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) with applications that are slow to respond to the requests from users.

The costs of creating a Web-based learning environment, from the production of the software to the delivery and update of it, can be high. In addition, the costs of a staff to keep Web-based learning programs up and running can be significant.

Course development tools are increasingly requiring programming-level expertise, which makes the gaming market a more attractive area to focus on compared to online training applications.

The limited bandwidth of the Internet is also making the downloading of images and streaming video much more difficult in specific regions of the world.

Higher-end online learning applications require higher-end and more expensive systems to make them run efficiently.

The greater the complexity of the applications the more thorough and more frequent the training required to have both instructors and trainers conversant with the applications' features.

Conceptual Holes, Problems and Needs

There is a coverage area not specifically addressed by the research studies cited, specifically in the area of elementary school special education students. This lack of coverage has been thoroughly researched as is shown by the Literature Review of this Action Research paper. What remains specifically to be done is quantify the impact of Web-based learning and in-class learning as a hybrid strategy for getting elementary school special education students to improve their math and statistics scores through the use of Java-based applets online. From the existing research on Web-based instruction performance where Java Applets are used for teaching the fundamental concepts of mathematics and statistics to elementary school special education students, the research infers that scaffolding strategies (Najjar, 2008) are effectively used for tailoring individual learning plans for these students. Scaffolding has proven very effective as a framework specifically for teaching high school, university and post-graduate students more complex concepts through the use of graphically-based learning aids including Java applets. It is the contention of this Action Research paper that the concepts as defined by the thorough literature review completed that the same dynamics of how people learn later in their academic careers can also be applied to elementary school special education students.

Implications for Practice

In many traditional instructional settings it is very difficult to develop the more advanced skills like analysis, application, synthesis and evaluation, especially for students who are not motivated to better their learning strategies. Unfortunately the most pervasive strategy today is a passive approach of teaching and learning, requiring little if any interaction between student and subject. This passive learning forms a culture that promotes a lack of accountability for learning.

Web-based learning however forces students to be actively involved in the learning process as they have to make sense of the available information, interpret and synthesis the findings of studies. While web-based delivery of content significantly enhances learning and critical thinking, it also forces instructors to further align their content and teaching materials specifically for the needs of students.

The traditional approach to teaching also forces attendance at a specific date and time, making it critical for the student to be in the classroom to get the necessary information for completing the tasks and assignments. Conversely web-based instruction is ideal for distance learning, specifically bringing content, audio, visual and textual to students when they have the time to complete the tasks involved in the class.

Much of the research completed on Web-based instruction strategies shows that it requires a higher than average level of self-discipline and promotes the development of strong time management skills. These studies have also shown that the more motivated students are attracted to these online programs to attain their educational goals. Online students in general are more goal-oriented and focused on results over and above merely attending a course. In addition to these attributes, students of online courses have quickly found approaches to making online content and learning an advantage. They as a general rule have a much more thorough understanding of Internet technologies and the use of web browsers, educational software and applications for giving them the opportunity to attain their educational goals.

The downside of Web-based learning and WBI in general is the lack of technical support when software or Internet problems occur, or worse, when a specific Web server goes offline and there is no word on what is happening with the course content. There is also a wide variation in the performance of online instructors, and this is amplified in Web-based instruction methods.

Traditional vs. Web-based instruction have definite advantages and disadvantages, yet the implications of Web-based applications, tools and techniques being the future of effective learning strategies on a global scale are clear.

Rationale for Action Research Question and Study Design

Technology is increasing its impact on higher education by making information and learning experiences more immediate, focused, and customizable to the individual needs of the student. The growth of learning tools and processes that rely on the agility and speed of publishing attributes of the World Wide Web show significant potential for increasing the effectiveness of learning strategies into the future as well.

Despite the very positive perceptions of what learning strategies could be created and customized to the students' unmet needs specifically in statistics courses, the typical classroom is lacking in progress. The typical classroom of today has been, in the best of cases, integrated with computer systems on a network that allow for file and data sharing in class from the instructor. Yet the progression of software and specifically applications delivered over the World Wide Web for use in tailoring learning strategies for students in more complex subjects is still embryonic in its growth. There is a dearth of materials today for assisting students in learning the fundamentals of more complex subjects. Instead the majority of classes are primarily lecture-based with chalk, a blackboard and possibly an overhead projector. The use of Microsoft PowerPoint and computer-compatible overhead projectors has replaced the chalk and blackboard, yet this has just hastened the publishing of more materials as opposed to increasing student participation in the learning process. During the last forty years, starting in 1960 and progressing through the 70s there was increasing emphasis on television-based instruction. The advent of personal computers and applications quickly replaced this teaching strategy however. What has become apparent is that the use of technology for its own sake as an enabler of teaching strategies and techniques does not work; rather it is the selective application of technologies to students' unmet needs that matters most. Among the challenges identified by Waits, Lewis (2003) in their characterization of a national strategy for educational technology is the need to train teachers to effectively use technology and to assure a plentiful supply of high-quality educational software.

This necessitates a lifetime learning commitment however, which is becoming possible with electronic education initiatives on the World Wide Web. In his vision of the future of electronic education, Wade (1999) predicts that the distinction between formal and informal education will become less clear, that the duration of learning will increase, and that the location of learning may shift, in part, from the classroom to the home. This is large part due to the growth of electronic education initiatives and teaching strategies.

CHAPTER 3

Research Design

Introduction

The intent of this research design is to isolate the most significant variables of interest in this study, concentrating on the specific aspects of learning enabled though Java-based Applet performance. The Action Research Plan specifically concentrates on tracking learning outcomes through the use of Java Applet-based learning systems. As a result, the use of Web-based Java Applets accessible over the Internet via a browser is used for this analysis. The research concentrates on testing two groups of students. One group was taught only with Java-based applets to illustrate mathematical and statistical concepts, and the second was taught in class and also with Java-based applets as a supplemental learning tool.