Effects of Lead Exposures among Children under 12 Years of age

Abstract
Around the World and in the United States, actions have been taken to reduce, control and clean up the volume of Lead so that to prevent Lead-related illnesses among humans. Lead exposure is seen to affect a child’s development process and some behavioral aspects. The study seeks to determine the effect of indoor Lead exposure to children under the age of 12 years. This study undertakes a secondary desk-review research methodology to obtain knowledge from previous researches.
The study establishes that children are exposed to Lead through consumption of water at homestead or/and at the school where the drinking water is distributed through old Lead plumbing components. The reviewed literature also establishes that children under the age of 6 years exhibited a higher Blood Lead Level (BLL) compared to those above six years. Therefore children under 6 years are more susceptible to health effects than those above 6 years.
Health Effects of Indoor Lead Exposure in Children Aged Below 12 Years
Introduction
Lead (Lb) is a malleable, soft, and ductile metal in the scientific periodic table (Salisbury, pp. 25). As a metal, Lead has scientifically been established to be toxic and many of its uses have been discontinued and/or prohibited through lawful actions. It is however notable that there are areas where its use has continued and in some area, it is manufactured either legally or illegally. Some of its legal uses are owed to its malleability, softness, or conductivity to produce soldering wires, electric cables, electrical parts and shielding radiation (Morse, et. al., pp. 711). Lead is found deep in the earth’s crust and its extraction is through mining. The activities of extracting Lead for production purposes have been blamed to pollute the water resource as well as cause destruction to the ecosystem (Hanna-Attisha, pp. 285). Lead becomes harmful to humans once it is exposed to the environment through skin contact with dust containing Lead, the air humans breathe or water they consume (Hanna-Attisha, pp. 286).
Background
Health effects arising from indoor Lead exposers are majorly attributed to the reliance on old plumbing materials that release Lead as they begin to corrode. Requirements stipulated by the by the 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act, require that all new homes built using Lead-free plumbing components. It is however notable that despite the efforts taken to cut down new exposure to Lead through water piping, nothing has been done to the old impoverished houses and institutions like schools and hospitals (Salisbury, pp. 29). This study notes the regulation on the use of Lead to manufacturing household plumbing components and the general manufacturing of Lead came into force between the early 1970s through to late l980s. The regulation is ideal to reduce the occurrence of Lead-related health effects, through exposure to Lead plumbing components.
According to (Hanna-Attisha, pp. 286), a higher risk of Lead poisoning is observed where the water stays for a long period of time without being used and then, it is consumed at a high rate. This scenario highlights the plight of old schools where Lead plumbing components were used during construction and no changes have been made. The study by (Hanna-Attisha, pp. 288), observes that in the US such cases contribute to between 10-20% of the health cases related to Lead exposure.
Optimal growth and development of humans are critical at the tender ages below 12 years. At this age, a child has the highest potential to grow and develop various faculties of their body including the brain, physical strength, body organ development, and behavior. The potential exposure to negative health affect will compromise their growth and development and thus limit their attainment of ideal optimal maturity. There is need therefore to establish whether there are any effects of indoor Lead exposures to children under the age of 12 years and assess the ideal remedies. This study aims to determine the effect of indoor Lead exposure to children under the age of 12 years and assess the ideal remedies.
Hypotheses
H1: Children are not at risk of being exposed to Lead through Lead-contaminated water in old homes and schools.
H2: Children are at a risk of being exposed to Lead through Lead-contaminated water in old homes and schools.
Study Methodology
This study undertakes a secondary desk-review research methodology to obtain knowledge from previous researches. According to (Burgess, pp. 251), secondary desk-review research methodology entails the review of researches undertaken previously. The current study identifies three research studies undertaken in three different areas of the United States where children are exposed to high levels of Lead.
Limitations of the Study
The study is limited to desk research review therefore, results will be derived from the affirming the finding previous different researches in relation to the current study’s objective.
The study is also limited to information relating to home and school Lead exposures to children under the age of 2 years.
Literature Review
(Hanna-Attisha, pp. 286), compared the blood Lead level (BLL) in children 5 years and below data provided at the Hurley Medical Center. The data provided relates to a period where an old water source was being used and after the water source was sourced at the Flint River. Children living outside the city of Flint with a water source that did not change were used as a comparison group in this study. The data retrieved was broken down into groups correlating to different areas of the city of Flint and compared to the water Lead levels taken in each area. In the study, out of the children sampled living in Flint prior to the water source change 2.4% had an Elevated Blood Lead Levels (EBLL) and following the water source change that number rose to 4.9% (Hanna-Attisha, pp. 287). This data was compared to levels taken from children living in cities outside of Flint and there was no real change.
The study by (Hanna Attisha, pp. 288) looked at the type of plumbing found in homes and monitored them to see what impact they had on Lead levels in drinking water. Of all the homes observes Lead service lines were found in 45 homes and the rest were split between copper and galvanized pipe. Lead concentrations above .05 mg/l were found in half the homes with Lead service lines and about ¼ of the homes without Lead servicing lines also had similar results. Form the 192 children 9 (nine) had high BLL that shows they had a high absorption of Lead. As children got older the BLL decreased but it was highest in younger aged children. The younger aged children had a Lead concentration above .05 mg/l observed in 4 out of the 27 sampled water sourced from the homes of children with Elevated Blood Lead Levels (EBLL) (Hanna Attisha, pp. 289).
The Elevated Blood Lead Levels (EBLL) were found in the impoverished neighborhoods while in the more stable neighborhoods in the area lower BLL’s. This is likely since the economically capable residents as the middle-class residents would to take prevention efforts and respond to the water source change. Further action by the authority prompted the testing Lead in drinking water the schools in the area. It was established that Lead toxic range was within the acceptable level in three schools and in one school a level 7 times of the acceptable range and above the remediation, capacity was observed (Hanna Attisha, pp. 288).
A study by, (Massey A. R., & Janet E. S., pp. 18), evaluates the water from five towns in South Central Kansas by testing the water from primary schools and preschools. Samples were collected from the oldest and newest facilities in the towns that had more than one primary school. This study targeted drinking water sources for kindergarteners and preschoolers as children six and younger have a higher risk of suffering brain damage from Lead poisoning. Samples were collected first thing in the morning with 4 samples being taken from each school from each type of water source location. The Kansas school water studies established that one-third of children under the age of six were exposed to some form of Lead contamination (Massey A. R., & Janet E. S., pp. 189). The result in the study by Massey was alarming since children under the age of 6 years are more likely to suffer brain danger from exposure to Lead than older children.
A research by (Bryant, pp. 287), conducted water samples in 292 out of 298 school building in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania over an 8-month time period. drinking fountains, water coolers, bathroom faucets, classroom faucets, icemaker, kitchen cold-water faucets, and kitchen hot- water faucets were all tested prior to facilities being open for use for the day, however, water was not collected and sampled if it could have been sitting pipes for a while following long weekends and holidays.
In (Bryant, pp. 289), the research establishes that the Philadelphia school hallway hydrants do not have Lead levels exceeding 20 ppb other primary sources of water like drinking fountains, classroom hydrants, home economic hot-hydrants and cold- water faucets gave a result of the Lead level above 20 ppb (Bryant pp. 289). When comparing water results between hot water and cold water samples from the home economics faucets, the hot water samples frequently had higher levels of Lead than cold water.
Summary
The results from the researches reviews indicate that Lead exposure to children under the age of 12 years may take place in their home and schools. The exposure is occasioned by both from water sources with high levels of Lead and in old corroded plumbing system with a component made from Lead. These factors were observed in some case to contain Lead levels that are seven times above the accepted limit. In the case for BLL in the children, high levels of up to 4.9% were observed in children under the age of 12 years (Hanna-Attisha, pp. 288).
Among the homes reviewed one quarter (¼) of them exhibited the presence of Lead servicing water lines. In the case for the schools, water hydrant points in the schools exhibit 20 ppb Lead levels at hallway hydrants and above 20 ppb in classroom hydrant points and hot and cold water hydrants (Bryant, pp. 290). The higher BLL were found in the impoverished low incomes neighborhoods. The survey established that the children under the age of 6 years have a higher Lead absorption revealing a 0.5 mg/1 BLL (Hanna Attisha, pp. 288). This age group is also more susceptible to higher negative health effects from Lead exposure. The older children above the age of years revealed that as they grew old their BLL was reducing (Hanna Attisha, pp. 288). The survey deduced that exposure to Lead in children will compromise their growth and development by causing brain damage and deterring effective comprehensive physical growth (Massey A. R., & Janet E. S., pp. 19).
Conclusion of the Study
Children are at a risk of being exposed to Lead through Lead-contaminated water in old homes and schools. Even though Lead production and manufacture have been phased out of production it still continues to affect the health of children and humans at large. Some factors contributing to this are older homes and institutions that required a Lead-free upgrade of the plumbing system. There is also a need to assess the source of water for household consumption since the sources are also significant contributors of children exposed to Lead content. Early detection of Lead exposure and absorption through regular testing of the children should be considered in order to provide remedial measures early for the children
The current study assessment establishes that children aged below 12 years are at high risk of being exposed to Lead through Lead-contaminated water in old homes and schools. This directs the study to accept the alternative hypothesis that: Children are at a risk of being exposed to Lead through Lead-contaminated water in old homes and schools.
Recommendation for Further Studies
The current study was limited to information relating to Lead exposures at home and school to children under the age of 12 years. Further studies should consider assessment in additional areas such as industries, mining locations, and motor vehicles air pollution on the roads and highways.
More research needs to be undertaken to come up with innovative measures to figure out a way for ensuring everyone has clean drinking water and the likely contamination and exposure to Lead is reduced. Lead poisoning occurs in small quantities still and thus stands as an issue of concern, therefore further studies need to be conducted to assess ideal measures for regulations and control the Lead contaminations in water.
References
Bryant, S. D., “Lead-Contaminated Drinking Waters in the Public Schools of Philadelphia.” Journal of Clinical Toxicology, vol. 42 no. 3, 2004, pp. 287-294.
Burgess, R. G. “Field Research: A Sourcebook and Field Manual.” United Kingdom:, 2003, Taylor & Francis.
Hanna-Attisha, M., Lachance, J., Sadler, R. C., & Schnepp, A. C. “Elevated Blood Lead Levels in Children Associated With the Flint Drinking Water Crisis: A Spatial Analysis of Risk and Public Health Response.” American Journal of Public Health, vol. 106 no. 2, 2016, pp. 283-290. doi:10.2105/ajph.2015.303003
Levin, R., Brown, M. J., Kashtock, M. E., Jacobs, D. E., Whelan, E. A., Rodman, J., Sinks, T. “Lead Exposures in U.S. Children, 2008: Implications for Prevention.” Environ Health Perspect Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 116 no. 10, 2008, pp. 1285-1293. doi:10.1289/ehp.11241
Massey, Anne R., and Janet E. Steele. “Lead in Drinking Water: Sampling in Primary Schools and Preschools in South Central Kansas.” Journal of Environmental Health, vol. 74, no. 7, 2012, pp. 16–21. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26329364.
Morse, D. L., Watson, W. N., Housworth, J., Witherell, L. E., & Landrigan, P. J.. “Exposure of children to lead in drinking water.” American Journal of Public Health, vol. 69 no. 7, 1979, pp. 711-712. doi:10.2105/ajph.69.7.711
Salisbury, N. E. Lead (Pb). Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science, 2016.