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Abdelsayed, L. M., Bustrum, J. M., Tisdale, T. C., Reimer, K. S., & Camp, C. A. (2013). The impact of personality on God image, religious coping, and religious motivation among Coptic Orthodox priests. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 16(2), 155-172. doi:10.1080/13674676.2011.652604

The authors of this article show how intrinsic motivation is linked to personality characteristics among priests in the Coptic Orthodox tradition. Using a sample of 75 Orthodox priests, all of whom are male, the researchers administered the 16 Factor Personality Questionnaire, which has 185 items, for trait assessment. Because of the high reliability and validity of the instrument used, the results of this study can be generalized reasonably well to a broader religious population. In addition to evaluating the relationship between personality and spirituality, the researchers also assessed different traits that might be related to spiritual motivation, which is why this research links to my own. Interestingly, the researchers found no significant differences between Orthodox clergy personality profiles and profiles in the mainstream male population, suggesting no “typical” priest personality. However, the researchers do point out the specific elements that motivate priests to seek positions of leadership or perform specific roles in their respective communities.

Brimhall, A., & Butler, M. (2007). Intrinsic vs. extrinsic religious motivation and the marital relationship. American Journal of Family Therapy, 35(3), 235-249.

Prior literature has focused on the positive link between marriage satisfaction and religiosity. This study builds on prior literature and corrects gaps in the research by including motivation as an additional variable. The researchers surveyed 74 couples, and results showed that the husband’s intrinsic religious or spiritual motivation was significantly correlated with marriage satisfaction, and that the higher the husband’s motivation, the higher the level of satisfaction in the marriage for both the husband and the wife. Therefore, this research has tremendous implications for my own. Limitations of this study include a homogenous population, which can be corrected for easily in future studies. Interestingly, the results of the Brimhall & Butler (2007) study reveal significant gender differences in motivation. In particular, the female participants in the study reported higher overall marriage satisfaction when they were extrinsically motivated for religious and spiritual activities. Results have implications for religious counselors and clergy.

Corodeanu Agheorghiesei, D. T., Copoeru, I., & Horia, N. (2016). The role of religion in businesses from a three-dimensional perspective--entrepreneurship, marketing and organizational management. Journal For The Study Of Religions And Ideologies, (45), 283.

This research is unique in that it places the teaching of religion within a global perspective. As the teaching of religion has fallen out of favor in secular societies, there do remain many areas in which religion is still taught in the standard curriculum. Research has revealed some positive connections between the teaching of religion in public schools and student outcomes. In this review of literature, the authors show how the teaching of religion specifically to economics students at the undergraduate level might lead to personal and professional advantages. The authors focus on the ethical and values dimensions of religious education, to show how organizations in the private sector can also capitalize on some religious education. Because of its special focus on religion as motivating ethical behavior during the learning process, this research will become helpful in informing my work and offering some background information on the types of intrinsic motivation that religious education can inspire.

Dousay, T. T. (2016). Effects of redundancy and modality on the situational interest of adult learners in multimedia learning. Educational Technology Research & Development, 64(6), 1251-1271.

Design principles are integral to pedagogy and theories of learning because of the effect of environment on student outcomes. Building on this prior research, Dousay (2016) conducts original experimental research using 102 adult learners working in the medical technician or emergency medical systems field. Participants were randomly assigned to control and two experimental groups. The experimental groups included three different training sessions that followed unique modailities or redundancy design principles. Specifically, animation-text, animation-narration, and animation-narration-text design principles were used. A pretest and a posttest were administered, and the differences between scores was analyzed using the analysis of variance method. Situational interest was also measured, and results showed that each of the design principles had a differential outcome on situational interest of the participants. If educators are to integrate multimedia materials into the learning environment, I would rely on this study for support. Given the proliferation of multimedia materials in education, this research will become valuable in my research on intrinsic motivation.

González-Marcos, A., Alba-Elías, F., Navaridas-Nalda, F., & Ordieres-Meré, J. (2016). Student evaluation of a virtual experience for project management learning: An empirical study for learning improvement. Computers & Education, 102172-187. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.08.005

To improve student learning outcomes, researchers need to understand how to increase student extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. In this research, Gonzolez-Marcos, Alba-Elias, Mavaridas-Nalda & Ordieres-Mere (2016) examine specific student-centric approaches that are based on situated learning theory. Moreover, this research focuses on project-based learning, which has become integrated into the business environment because of its emphasis on teamwork and collaboration. Both peer motivations and self-directed learning were linked with the development of student intrinsic motivation and learning outcomes. In this study, 122 students at undergraduate and master’s level who were enrolled in project management courses were selected and randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. The researchers found that positive expectations of future professional development, clear learning objectives, and positive self-perception were all correlated with academic performance and motivation. Although it was a quasi-experimental design with a few methodological issues, the outcomes do support my hypothesis about intrinsic motivation and its relationship to learning.

Heeneman, S., Oudkerk Pool, A., Schuwirth, L. T., Vleuten, C. M., & Driessen, E. W. (2015). The impact of programmatic assessment on student learning: theory versus practice. Medical Education, 49(5), 487-498. doi:10.1111/medu.12645

Prior literature shows that assessment frequency, type, and style affect student self-perception as well as actual learning outcomes. In this study, the authors build upon and add to prior literature in assessment by assessing factors that contribute to students’ active construction of learning. The authors sampled a population of seventeen graduate students, making it a relatively small sample size. Because the graduate students were enrolled in a medical school, it is difficult to generalize about the results of the study. Moreover, the research was qualitative in nature. However, this research does offer some insight into the elements that impact student learning. The authors found that active participation in learning improves student outcomes because active participation is akin to intrinsic learning and self-directed learning. Furthermore, the researchers found that programmatic assessment was especially conducive to active learning, with tremendous implications for educators. The study also influences my own research design on intrinsic motivation.

Marmon, E. L. (2013). TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING THEORY: CONNECTIONS WITH CHRISTIAN ADULT EDUCATION. Christian Education Journal, 10(2), 424-431.

Transformative learning theory is based on several core dimensions including experience, critical reflection, corporate disclosure, authentic relationships, and change, according to the author. Based on the principles of transformative learning theory, this research applies the theory to adult Christian education. The principles of transformative learning theory are evaluated in turn and applied to specific elements of the adult Christian education experience. The author also discusses the principle of discipleship, and factors it into the Christian education experience in light of transformative learning theory. Although this research is not experimental, it provides a theoretical framework that can be helpful for grounding my own investigation in the field of intrinsic motivation and religious learning. Authentic relationships between students and their peers or between students and their instructors can offer the social motivation for a collaborative spiritual learning experience. Coupled with critical reflection on the learning experience, the principles of transformative learning theory perfectly complement a Christian educational paradigm.
Matics, D. (2015). Implementing Simulation in Air Medical Training: Integration of Adult Learning Theory. Air Medical Journal, 34261-262. doi:10.1016/j.amj.2015.04.006

Although not an experimental research, this article focuses on unique aspects of simulation technologies and how they can enhance the student experience. Simulations are widely used in the medical and aviation industries, as well as in the air medical training programs, as shown in this article. A multidisciplinary, team-based approach was used during the simulation program. As my research also focuses on intrinsic motivation in adult Christian students, this research ties in by its focus on adult learners. The author outlines some of the main dimensions of adult learning including the interplay of real life situations with cognitive and affective domains, the enabling of systematic reflection, and the creation of a collaborative space within which participants or students can communicate with each other and articulate their experience while also receiving feedback. The Kolb Learning Cycle model is used to enhance the findings of the research, and I intend to also integrate the model into my own field of study.

Metzinger, C., & Berg, C. (2015). Work readiness tools for young adults with chronic conditions. Work, 52(3), 605-615. doi:10.3233/WOR-152185

Unlike most of the other research on intrinsic motivation, this study focuses on learner populations who have chronic health conditions. When chronic health conditions create barriers to work performance, ability, or outcomes, the result can also lead to compounded problems like mental health and social impediments. The researchers also found that work readiness resources can mitigate some of the problems associated with chronic health conditions, offering the workers the opportunity to build skills and confidence systematically and with measurable outcomes. This information can easily be integrated into my own research on improving intrinsic motivation among diverse groups of students. This research used a number of different tools including the O-Net interest profiler, standard O-Net, and occupational profiles. I also intend to rely on Knowles’s Andragogy and Lawton’s Ecological Model, as these researchers did. When working with individuals with chronic health problems, whether those problems are mental or physical issues nevertheless offers astute educators the opportunity to provide supportive tools and learning environments.

O'Reilly, E. N. (2014). Correlations among perceived autonomy support, intrinsic motivation, and learning outcomes in an intensive foreign language program. Theory And Practice In Language Studies, (7), 1313.

Perceived autonomy is linked with intrinsic motivation, self efficacy, and self-esteem. This research shows how student perceptions of autonomy correlate with intrinsic motivation and also measurable learning outcomes, in this case quantified using GPA. A total of 77 adult learners were included as participants in the current study, which involved an eight-week intensive program in a foreign language. Two survey instruments were offered, at the beginning and towards the end of the academic program. The researchers found that increased perceptions of autonomy were directly correlated with higher GPA and the effect was even stronger for the dependent variable of intrinsic motivation. As intrinsic motivation is difficult to quantify, the researcher relied on self-reports. Although my research is not necessarily on foreign language learning, the methodologies and theories that underlie the O’Reille (2014) research parallel my own. In particular, this research can inform how I design a study measuring the impact of intrinsic learning on student outcomes.

Pepper, A. A., Gosling, T. T., & Gore, J. j. (2015). Fairness, envy, guilt and greed: Building equity considerations into agency theory. Human Relations, 68(8), 1291-1314.

In this study, Pepper, Gosling & Gore (2015) examine agency theory and perceived fairness in the private sector. The authors also integrate tournament theory into the research, and explore the implications of top-down management incentives. Perceptions of fairness, efficacy, and agency do play into intrinsic motivation, and can influence performance outcomes. A total of 756 executives gathered internationally participated in the current study, comprising a large and representative sample size. Therefore, this study is among the most reliable of all in my research. The authors divided the population according to income, to control for motivational factors related to remuneration. Sophisticated modeling methods were used, including proprietary algorithms. While I may not be able to use similar algorithms, I will rely on this research to inform my own study. The authors offer suggestions for refining fairness models, showing that fairness was in fact a motivational factor for senior executives. This research shows that intrinsic motivation can be important even in high value, high-stakes monetary situations.
Saines, D. (2015). Learning to be the church: The value of learning theory for discipleship and mission. Pacifica, 28(3), 290. doi:10.1177/1030570X16683967

Focusing on religious learning, and Christian learning and education, Saines (2015) frames this research in terms of transformative adult education and learning theory. The author advises a clear grounding in spiritual principles, with goals and values that are communicated to the students. Students who are interested in discipleship are theoretically motivated intrinsically by spiritual values, but it is still important for educators to use evidence-based pedagogical practices. This research is not experimental, but offers a solid theoretical background and framework for my study. Saines (2015) also discusses the importance of integrative learning to Christian education, and incorporates decades of psychological research into the analysis. Deep learning and holistic learning are also critical components of a successful Christian education program. This research can be helpful for educators seeking changes to their pedagogical approaches, as the author also suggests alterations to the physical learning environment to encourage intrinsic motivation, collaboration, and discipleship.

Smither, J. W., & Walker, A. G. (2015). The relationship between core self-evaluations, views of god, and intrinsic/extrinsic religious motivation. Psychological Reports, 116(2), 647-662. doi:10.2466/17.07.PR0.116k24w2

This research is focused on personality theories in psychology, which are often reliant on self-evaluation methods. In this study, the authors discuss some of the most common areas of personality trait research including self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, neuroticism, and locus of control. Each of these personality factors can be correlated with variations in intrinsic motivation. Moreover, religiosity is a variable that has been linked with personality traits and also to intrinsic motivation in prior literature. The current study builds on prior literature, by conducting an empirical analysis of 220 adult participants completing several different self-assessment measures. The measures included items related to religiosity in general and religious attitudes. Using multivariate regression models of analysis bolstered the efficacy and validity of the research, which showed that how one perceives God has a bearing on religious motivation. In particular, viewing God as loving is positively correlated with high intrinsic motivation. Viewing God as punitive is linked to extrinsic religious motivation, with clear implications for religious pedagogy and my own research hypothesis.
Thompson, T., Lamont-Robinson, C., & Williams, V. (2016). At sea with disability! Transformative learning in medical undergraduates voyaging with disabled sailors. Medical Education, 50(8), 866-879.

Educators need to understand the best methods of working with diverse student populations. Students with disabilities in a religious education program may require different pedagogical and environmental tools, as the authors of this research point out. Sixteen participants in a week-long seafaring educational program were paired with a disabled student counterpart, and assessments were made using in-depth interviews and other qualitative methods. Student participants were also asked to keep diaries and record their perceptions of working and rooming with students with disabilities, but the students with disabilities did not do the same. Future research might also assess the perceptions of the students with disabilities. This study reveals some of the perceptual factors that can adversely or positively impact disabled students’ learning experiences. Measuring attitudes in this study helps to inform my research on increasing intrinsic motivation in religious studies students. Furthermore, this study can be expanded to inform future research on how to adapt the learning environment to suit a broader student population.

Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(5), 1382-1414.

This research focuses exclusively on motor performance, as opposed to the bulk of research consulted that focuses on cognitive or academic outcomes. Because physical activity and motor performance are integral to many professions, it is important for educators to understand the motivational factors that impact student outcomes in physical or motor skills assessments. Variables that have been shown to impact student learning outcomes in motor skills include attitudinal variables and also autonomy, which has also been linked to motivation in cognitive skills training. Therefore, autonomy does seem to be a factor worth exploring in how to increase intrinsic motivation. The researchers also suggest a theory of motor learning known as the Optimizing Performance through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning (OPTIMAL) theory, which stresses motivational, attentional, and cognitive variables impacting motor learning. Because the authors also offer data from neurological studies that corroborate the results, I intend to incorporate this study into my research.