Research Paper Doctorate 3,892 words

Emotional Intelligence: Issues in Theoretical

Last reviewed: October 11, 2006 ~20 min read

Emotional Intelligence: Issues in Theoretical Construct and Measurement

Business Administration)

This dissertation proposal examines the relationship that exist between the role of 'emotional intelligence' and 'effective leadership and job success.' In the terms of conceptual definition, Peter Salovey of Yale University and John Mayer at the University of New Hampshire view emotional intelligence as a set of skills hypothesized to contribute to the accurate interpretation and expression of emotion in oneself and others; also the effective regulation of emotion, and the use of feelings to motivate, plan and achieve success. The better known Daniel Goleman has popularized emotional intelligence to a more vast audience outside the world of academia. The definition applied to 'emotional intelligence' by Goleman is 'the ability to rein in emotional impulse, to read another's innermost feelings; and to handle relationships smoothly.' At some point during the earlier part of the 1990's Goleman; while working as a science writer for the New York Times, writing mainly on the subjects related to the brain and behavioral research, became aware of the writings of Salovey and Mayer.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIENCE THEORY

The theory of emotional intelligence states that emotional intelligence "is a combination of the intelligence we have that helps us both know and manage ourselves well, and the intelligence that we have that helps us understand, motivate and relate effectively to other people." (Centre for Applied Emotional Intelligence, 2006) Many individuals had a part in the development of this theory. The Hay Group - Emotional Intelligence Services states that 'Emotional Intelligence' basics include:

1) Knowing your feelings and using them to make life decisions you can live with;

2) Being able to manage your emotional life without being hijacked by it -- not being paralyzed by depression or worry, or swept away by anger;

3) Persisting in the face of setbacks and channeling your impulses in order to pursue your goals;

4) Empathy -- reading other people's emotions without their having to tell you what they are feeling; and 5) Handling feelings in relationships with skill and harmony -- being able to articulate the unspoken pulse of a group, for example. (2006)

1994 report in relation to the current state of emotional literacy in the United States Daniel Goleman stated that: "in navigating our lives, it is our fears and envies, our rages and depressions, our worries and anxieties that steer us day-to-day. Even the most academically brilliant among us are vulnerable to being undone by unruly emotions. The price we pay for emotional literacy is in failed marriages and troubled families, in stunted social and work lives, in deteriorating physical health and mental anguish and, as a society, in tragedies such as killings..." Goleman holds that the best and most practicable cure for dealing with emotional shortcomings is "preventative medicine." (2001)

EI as a FORM of INTELLIGENCE

Emotional intelligence can be defined as the individual's ability to manage their own emotions, as well as being aware of the emotions of others in their interaction with others. When an individual has attained a level of emotional intelligence they understand that emotions cannot rule their actions nor their communications with the world around them. Emotional intelligence is defined as having "five characteristics and abilities" which are those of:

1) Self-awareness, or knowing ones' emotions and recognizing ones' feelings as they occur and being as to discriminate them one from another;

2) Mood-management, or handling feelings in a manner that is relevant to the situation at hand with appropriate reaction;

3) Self-motivation, or the 'gathering up' of ones' feelings and directing oneself towards a goal, despite self-doubt inertia and impulsiveness;

4) Empathy, or the recognition of feelings in others and being able to discern their verbal as well as nonverbal clues;

5) Managing relationships, or handling of interpersonal interaction, conflict resolution and negotiations. (Emotional Intelligence, 2001)

Stated additionally and important in comprehending the actual scope of what is involved in 'emotional intelligence' is that: "Research in brain-based learning suggests that emotional health is fundamental to effective learning. according to a report form the National Center for Clinical Infant Programs, the most critical element for a student's success in school is an understanding of how to learn. (Emotional Intelligence, p. 193) the traits that are those which are inclusive in the spectrum of factors and traits that comprise the 'Emotional Intelligence' or the 'EI' of the individual are stated to be those as follows:

Confidence

Curiosity

Intentionality

Self-control

Relatedness

Capacity to communicate

Ability to cooperate (Emotional Intelligence, p. 194)

SPEARMAN- PSYCHOLOGICAL ABILITY

Charles Edward Spearman is remembered as a psychologist and a developer of the statistical method known as factor analysis. Within the theoretical framework of the research of Spearman in the many studies which he conducted is the 'two-factor' theory of intelligence. Spearman held that general intelligence ('g') "was a single factor correlated with specific abilities" ('s') to varying degrees." The basis of intelligence testing was that which Spearman had formulated based on his research study. (Encyclopedia of Psychology, nd)

THORNDIKE-"SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE"

In 1920 Edward Thorndike proposed what was termed 'social intelligence' in this realm: 'alexithymia' is the word used to describe 'the essence of emotional-social intelligence with a focus on the ability (or rather inability to recognize, understand and describe emotions. [MacLean, 1949; Ruesch, 1948; as cited by Bar-on: '. Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations - Issues in Emotional Intelligence. www. eiconsortium.org.] From alexithymia it is stated that both the elements of 'psychological mindedness' and 'emotional awareness' stood in parallel but also that from this they both evolved or that the failure to describe emotions is that which brought forth these elements. Bar-on relates that: "Research exploring the neural circuitry that governs emotional awareness (Lane, 2000), as well as additional emotional and social aspects of this concept (Bar-on et al. 2003; Bechara & Bar-on, in press; Bechara et al., 2000; Damasio, 1994; Lane & McRae, 2004; LeDoux, 1996), has begun to provide tangible evidence of the anatomical foundations of this wider construct which some have questioned as an intangible myth (Davies et al., 1998; Matthews et al., 2003; Zeidner et al., 2001)." (Ibid)

WESHSLER-"NON-INTELLECTIVE ABILITIES"

David Wechsler stated that "Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment." (1944, p.3) Wechsler developed several intelligence tests which are used on a wide basis including the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (1949) and the Adult Intelligence Scale (1955). Wechsler also established the use of the deviation quotient (DQ) which is used in replacing the use of mental ages in the computation of IQ scores.

HOWARD GARDINER-"MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES"

Howard Gardner in his notion of "Multiple Intelligences" holds that there are many dimensions that comprise what is known as human intelligence. In fact, Professor Howard Gardner of Harvard University states that there are "at least eight different kinds of human intelligence" (Multiple Intelligences, nd) According to Gardener the individual varies to the extent that they possess these eight. Gardner addressed the first of the seven intelligences in the work entitled: "Frames of Mind: The Theories Behind Multiple Intelligences" (1993)

Recently introduced were the two intelligences of the (1) naturalist; and (2) spiritual.. Creative intelligence is not isolated in the work of Gardiner although the work of Buzan and Keene are stated to include this among the ten intelligences in the work entitled: "Buzan's Book of Genius." (Ibid Although Gardiner doesn't specifically list creativity as being linked to intelligence."..the creative vein does weave through all of Gardner's intelligences. Gardner's 'Eight' Multiple Intelligences.

The 'eight' multiple intelligences specified by Gardner in the categories of 'Intelligence' and 'Division' as follows:

Intelligence

Division

Linguistic intelligence to learn, use and be sensitive to language

Logical-mathematical intelligence Analysis, mathematics, science/investigative abilities.

Musical Intelligence Perform, compose, and appreciate music and specifically as related to pitch, tone and rhythm

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Coordination and use of whole and part of the body.

Spatial Intelligence Recognize, use and solve spatial problems both large and confined.

Interpersonal intelligence Ability to read other's intentions, motivations, desires and feelings.

Intrapersonal intelligence Self knowledge and ability to understand and use one's inner knowledge.

Naturalist Intelligence Ability to draw upon the immediate environment to make judgments.

To illustrate his work, Gardner selected seven individuals who are known to be pronounced in a significant creative intelligence area. Those in the list are as follows:

Domain Name of the Person Role

Born - Died Linguistic TS Eliot poet

1888-1965

Logical-Mathematical Albert Einstein scientist

1879-1955

Musical Igor Stravinsky composer conductor

1882-1971

Visual-Spatial Pablo Picasso artist

1881-1973

Bodily-Kinesthetic Martha Graham dancer

1894-1991

Intrapersonal Sigmund Freud Neurologist

Psychologist

1856-1939

Interpersonal Mahatma Gandhi freedom fighter

1869-1948

Naturalist Charles Darwin naturalist

1809-1882

MAYER & SALOVEY-"FOUR BRANCH MODEL"

The four branch model of emotional intelligence as postulated in the work of Mayer & Salovey (1997) is a model that provides a description for 'four areas of capacities or skills that collectively describe many of areas of emotional intelligence. Within the theoretical framework of this model emotional intelligence possesses certain abilities which together comprise the individual emotional intelligence of the individual. In other words Emotional Intelligence means that the individual is capable of: (1) Accurately perceiving emotions in oneself and others; (2) Uses emotions to facilitate thinking; (3) Understands emotional meanings; and (4) Manages emotions well. This model is referred to as the 'ability' model of emotional intelligence. (Mayer & Salovey, 1997)

DANIEL GOLEMAN-PERSONAL & SOCIAL COMPETENCE

Daniel Goleman proposed the model of emotional intelligence based on the Personal and Social competencies of the individual. This work will look at each of these areas of competency for the individual in their 'personal' and 'social' interactions.

The Personal Competence Model

Within the framework of the personal competence model are the elements of:

1) Self-Awareness, 2) Self-Regulation, and 3) Self-Motivation.

The following chart illustrates these categories and the respective sub-categories that comprise each of the three in the Personal Competence model.

PERSONAL COMPETENCE MODEL

SELF-AWARENESS

I. Emotional Awareness is the recognition on one's own emotions and their effects. Those who possess this competence:

Know which emotions they are feeling and why Realize the links between their feelings and what they think, do, and say

Recognize how their feelings affect their performance

Have a guiding awareness of their values and goals

II. Self-Assessment (Accurate) knows one's strengths and limits. People with this competence are:

Aware of their strengths and weaknesses

Reflective, learning from experience

Open to candid feedback, new perspectives, continuous learning, and self-development

Able to show a sense of humor and perspective about themselves

III. Self-Confidence: When one is sure concerning their own self-worth and their own capabilities. People with this competence:

Present themselves with self-assurance; have "presence"

Can voice views that are unpopular and go out on a limb for what is right

Are decisive, able to make sound decisions despite uncertainties and pressures

SELF-REGULATION

I. Self-Control: Management of disruptive emotions and impulses. People with this competence:

Manage their impulsive feelings and distressing emotions well

Stay composed, positive, and unflappable even in trying moments

Think clearly and stay focused under pressure

II. Trustworthiness: Honesty and Integrity are maintained through adhesion to principles and standards. People with this competence:

Act ethically and are above reproach

Build trust through their reliability and authenticity

Admit their own mistakes and confront unethical actions in others

Take tough, principled stands even if they are unpopular

III. Conscientiousness: Taking responsibility for personal Performance. People with his competence:

Meet commitments and keep promises

Hold themselves accountable for meeting their objectives

Are organized and careful in their work

IV. Adaptability: Flexibility in handling change. People with this competence:

Smoothly handle multiple demands, shifting priorities, and rapid change

Adapt their responses and tactics to fit fluid circumstances

Are flexible in how they see events

V. Innovativeness: Being comfortable with and open to novel ideas and new information. People with this competence:

Seek out fresh ideas from a wide variety of sources

Entertain original solutions to problems

Generate new ideas

Take fresh perspectives and risks in their thinking

SELF-MOTIVATION

I. Achievement Drive: Striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence. People with this competence:

Are results-oriented, with a high drive to meet their objectives and standards

Set challenging goals and take calculated risks

Pursue information to reduce uncertainty and find ways to do better

Learn how to improve their performance

II. Commitment: Aligning with the goals of the group or organization. People with this competence:

Readily make personal or group sacrifices to meet a larger organizational goal

Find a sense of purpose in the larger mission

Use the group's core values in making decisions and clarifying choices

Actively seek out opportunities to fulfill the group's mission

III. Initiative: Readiness to act on opportunities. People with this competence:

Are ready to seize opportunities

Pursue goals beyond what's required or expected of them Cut through red tape and bend the rules when necessary to get the job done

Mobilize others through unusual, enterprising efforts

IV. Optimism: Persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks. People with this competence:

Persist in seeking goals despite obstacles and setbacks

Operate from hope of success rather than fear of failure

See setbacks as due to manageable circumstance rather than a personal flaw

The Social Competence Model

The following chart illustrates the elements that comprise what is know as social competence with the three main categories being those of: (1) Social-Awareness; (2) Social Skills; and (3)

SOCIAL COMPETENCE MODEL

SOCIAL AWARENESS

I. Empathy: Sensing others' feelings and perspective, and taking an active interest in their concerns. People with this competence:

Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well

Show sensitivity and understand others' perspectives

Help out based on understanding other people's needs and feelings

II. Service Oriented: Anticipating, recognizing, and meeting customers' needs. People with this competence:

Understand customers' needs and match them to services or products

Seek ways to increase customers' satisfaction and loyalty

Gladly offer appropriate assistance

Grasp a customer's perspective, acting as a trusted advisor

III. Are Adept at the Development of Others: Sensing what others need in order to develop, and bolstering their abilities. People with this competence:

Acknowledge and reward people's strengths, accomplishments, and development

Offer useful feedback and identify people's needs for development

Mentor, give timely coaching, and offer assignments that challenge and grow a person's skill

IV. Leverage of Diversity: Cultivating opportunities through diverse people. People with this competence:

Respect and relate well to people from varied backgrounds

Understand diverse worldviews and are sensitive to group differences

See diversity as opportunity, creating an environment where diverse people can thrive

Challenge bias and intolerance

V. Politically Aware: Reading a group's emotional currents and power relationships. People with this competence:

Accurately read key power relationships

Detect crucial social networks

Understand the forces that shape views and actions of clients, customers, or competitors

Accurately read situations and organizational and external realities

SOCIAL SKILLS

I. Influence: Wielding effective tactics for persuasion. People with this competence:

Are skilled at persuasion

Fine-tune presentations to appeal to the listener

Use complex strategies like indirect influence to build consensus and support

Orchestrate dramatic events to effectively make a point

II. Communication: Sending clear and convincing messages. People with this competence:

Are effective in give-and-take, registering emotional cues in attuning their message

Deal with difficult issues straightforwardly

Listen well, seek mutual understanding, and welcome sharing of information fully

Foster open communication and stay receptive to bad news as well as good

III. Leadership: Inspiring and guiding groups and people. People with this competence:

Articulate and arouse enthusiasm for a shared vision and mission

Step forward to lead as needed, regardless of position

Guide the performance of others while holding them accountable

Lead by example

IV. A Catalyst for Change: Initiating or managing change. People with this competence:

Recognize the need for change and remove barriers

Challenge the status quo to acknowledge the need for change

Champion the change and enlist others in its pursuit

Model the change expected of others

V. Conflict Management: Negotiating and resolving disagreements. People with this competence:

Handle difficult people and tense situations with diplomacy and tact

Spot potential conflict, bring disagreements into the open, and help deescalate

Encourage debate and open discussion

Orchestrate win-win solutions

VI. Building Bonds: Nurturing instrumental relationships. People with this competence:

Cultivate and maintain extensive informal networks

Seek out relationships that are mutually beneficial

Build rapport and keep others in the loop

Make and maintain personal friendships among work associates

VII. Collaboration and Cooperation: Working with others toward shared goals. People with this competence:

Balance a focus on task with attention to relationships

Collaborate, sharing plans, information, and resources

Promote a friendly, cooperative climate

Spot and nurture opportunities for collaboration

VIII. Team Capabilities: Creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals. People with this competence:

Model team qualities like respect, helpfulness, and cooperation

Draw all members into active and enthusiastic participation

Build team identity, esprit de corps, and commitment

Protect the group and its reputation; share credit

C. REUVEN BAR-on: EI in the CONTEXT of PERSONALITY THEORY,

After perusing the social-emotional relationship studies moved on toward Darwin and his effective adaptive behavior and the general conceptualizations of this type of intelligence have been inclusive of at least one of the key components as follows: (a) "The ability to recognize, understand and express emotions and feelings; (b) the ability to understand how others feel and relate with them; - the ability to manage and control emotions; (d) the ability to manage change, adapt and solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature; and (e) the ability to generate positive affect and be self-motivated." (Ibid)

The contribution of the Bar-on model is the theoretical basis for the EQ-I, which was originally developed to assess various aspects of this construct as well as to examine its conceptualization" (Ibid) Within this model the way in which one effectively understands oneself and deals with oneself and others is an expression of the social-emotional competencies upon which this model is based. In other words if one is both socially and emotionally intelligent "encompasses the ability to be aware of others' emotions, feelings and needs, and to establish and maintain cooperative, constructive and mutually satisfying relationships." (Ibid) Additionally stated in this work is that: Ultimately, being emotionally and socially intelligent means to effectively manage personal, social and environmental change by realistically and flexibly coping with the immediate situation, solving problems and making decisions." (Ibid)

Emotion Quotient Inventory (EQ-I) self report measure of emotionally and socially intelligent behavior that provides an estimate of emotional-social intelligence. The EQ-I was the first measure of its kind to be published by a psychological test publisher (BAR-on, 1997a) Contains 133 items (short sentences) (5 point response scale) takes 40 minutes to complete (scales are scored on 15 subscale scores: Intrapersonal (self-regard, emotional, self-awareness, assertiveness, Independence, self-actualization) Interpersonal (empathy, social responsibility, interpersonal relationship) Stress management (stress, tolerance, impulse control) Adaptability (reality testing, flexibility and problem solving) General Mood (optimism, happiness) Scores computer generated/raw scores auto. tabulated and converted into standard scores based on a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15. Resembles IQ scores - (E) Ave to above ave EQ scores - suggest respondent = effective emotional and social functioning. Higher scores - more positive prediction for effective functioning in meeting daily demands/challenges. Low - inability to be effective due to emotional, social or behavioral problems. Has built in correction factor automatic adjustment of scale scores based on scores obtain from two of the instrument's validity indices (positive impression and negative impress) Important feature for self-report reducing potential of distortion in effects of response bias with increased accuracy in results.

The work of Bar-on states that: "The development of the Bar-on model and measure of ESI proceeded in six major stages over a period of 17 years:

Identification of and forming logical clusters of varying emotional and social competencies were believed to directly impact effectiveness and psychological well-being based on the experience held as a social psychologist and a review of the literature.

Applying clear definition to the individual 'key' clusters of competencies, skills, and the emerging facilitators of this research.

Initial generation of approximately 1,000 individual items with professional experience as the basis, review of the literature and input and collaboration from other healthcare practitioners who were experienced asked to generate interview questions with guidance provided on the definitions.

Determination of the primary scales which numbered 15 and the items (133 total) for inclusion in the instrument with the basis being a combination of theoretical considerations and as well consideration being applied to statistical findings that were generated by item analysis and factor analysis;

The initial norming of the final version of the instrument was accomplished in 1996 with 3,831 North American adults; and Continuation of morning and validation of the instrument across cultures.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE & LEADERSHIP

In the study conducted by Sala and McBer and reported in the work entitled: "Do Programs Designed to Increase Emotional Intelligence at Work -- "Work?" (2006) it is related that the work of Goleman on the importance of emotional intelligence (EI) in the workplace (1995) has resulted in program development with a design geared toward: (1) education of people concerning the relevant nature of EI in the workplace; (2) assessment of relative strengths and weaknesses of the individual; and (3) provision of a framework for development and analysis of individual in the interaction with others on a greater level of EI. (Boyatzis, 1999) the study was of two samples of participants in a workshop 'Mastering Emotional Intelligence' the measurement used is that of the 'Emotional Intelligence Inventory' (EII) which is stated to be a "multi-rater instrument that provides self, manager, direct report, and peer ratings on a series of behavioral indicators of emotional intelligence, based on the emotional competencies identified by Goleman (1998). Inclusive are 20 competencies total divided into four separate clusters which are those of: (1)" self-awareness; (2) social-awareness; (3) self-management; and (4) social skills." (Boyatzis, Goleman, Rhee, 1999; as cited in Sala & McBer, 2006) Additionally stated is that in previous research studies the ECI has been found to "...have high levels of internal consistency." (Boyatzis & Burckle, 1999; as cited by Sala & McBer, 2006) in the study's findings stated is: "Because of the nature of EI workshops (small n), differences between T1 and T2 scores were considered meaningful if they showed (1) moderate to high effect sizes, (2) and if differences were statistically significant based on the results of paired-samples t-tests (Nickerson, 2000; Cohen, 1988; Harris & Rosenthal, 1985). Effect size equaled the difference between the groups being compared, divided by the standard deviation of the combined groups. This is a direct measure of the size of the difference between the groups that is not influenced by sample size (Nickerson, 2000) (Ibid) the findings of this study reveal "increases in T2 ECI scores with both samples suggest that workshop interventions are effective at improving EI. However, it is important to underscore that these findings, although very promising, are preliminary." (Sala & McBer, 2006) the following chart labeled Figure 1 states the competency measures and the data results from the study.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE INVENTORY (EII)

STUDY DATA

Overall differences between assessment one and assessment two on participants' total-other scores (N=20).

Assessment

One

Two

Effect

Competency Mean SD

Size

SELF-AWARENESS

Emotional Self-Awareness 2.55.34-2.62.31.22 -1.05.31

Accurate Self-Assessment 3.42.32-3.41.28.03-0.08.94

Self-Confidence 4.21.38-4.42.35.58 -3.24.004*

SOCIAL AWARENESS

Empathy 4.62.70-4.80.58.28 -1.46.16

Organizational Awareness 3.58.31-3.70.29.40 -2.79.01*

Service Orientation 4.21.27-4.42.29.75 -3.07.006*

SELF-Management

Self-Control 2.47.31-2.52.37.15 -0.65.52

Trustworthiness 2.66.23-2.69.21.14 -0.88.39

Conscientiousness 2.78.26-2.90.16.57 -4.19.001*

Adaptability 3.18.23-3.32.22.62 -2.96.008*

Achievement Orientation 4.58.65-4.73.56.25 -1.23.23

Initiative 3.25.32-3.42.26.59 -2.36.03*

SOCIAL SKILLS

Developing Others 3.17.40-3.18.46.02 -0.15.89

Leadership 3.20.46-3.27.39.17 -0.83.42

Influence 3.88.37-3.98.32.29 -1.02.32

Communication 3.19.35-3.35.33.47 -2.24.04*

Change Catalyst 3.85.45-4.00.53.31 -1.73.10

Conflict Management 3.06.35-3.23.35.49 -1.91.07*

Building Bonds 3.46.36-3.50.36.11 -0.73.47

Teamwork & Collaboration 4.06.54-4.10.51.08 -0.37.72

Differences were considered meaningful, or significant, if effect sizes were moderate or large and if paired-samples t-tests statistically significant (p

Table 2. Sample 2. Overall differences between assessment one and assessment two on participants' total-other scores (N=19).

Assessment

One

Two

Effect

Competency Mean SD

Size

SELF-AWARENESS

Emotional Self-Awareness 2.75.28-2.87.18.55 -2.80.01*

Accurate Self-Assessment 3.72.33-3.94.11

Self-Confidence 4.43.46-4.70.31.69 -3.22.005*

SOCIAL AWARENESS

Empathy 5.16.73-5.58.40.75 -3.81.001*

Organizational Awareness 3.79.30-3.92.12.60 -2.27.04*

Service Orientation 4.65.44-4.83.25.54 -2.52.02*

SELF-Management

Self-Control 2.77.36-2.90.15.50 -2.05.05*

Trustworthiness 2.81.20-2.92.01

Conscientiousness 2.92.18-2.96.12.28 -1.19.24

Adaptability 3.45.42-3.71.27.75 -2.84.01*

Achievement Orientation 5.21.60-5.52.42.60 -3.43.003*

Initiative 3.61.39-3.78.24.55 -2.24.04*

SOCIAL SKILLS

Developing Others 3.57.48-3.84.22.77 -3.46.003*

Leadership 3.52.48-3.84.20.97 -4.45.001*

Influence 3.32.56-3.61.35.63 -2.28.04*

Communication 3.60.43-3.81.21.65 -2.46.02*

Change Catalyst 4.39.50-4.65.27.67 -2.86.01*

Conflict Management 3.59.42-3.82.21.70 -3.33.004*

Building Bonds 3.65.38-3.89.18.87 -3.35.004*

Teamwork & Collaboration 4.46.48-4.80.28.89 -4.32.001*

Differences were considered meaningful, or significant, if effect sizes were moderate or large and if paired-samples t-tests statistically significant (p

EI & SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

The work entitled: "Rethinking the Route to Effective Leadership" a Fortune Magazine/Hay Group Executive Survey of Leadership Effectiveness Executive Briefing (1999) states that the leader's of today must have the ability to: "...leverage a broad range of styles given the complexity of organizations and their people. They must be highly flexible -- " adapting and improvising given changing strategies, shifting cultures, and the explosion of technology. Most importantly, they must never forget whom they are leading. Certainly strategic organizational goals are critical. But leaders who overlook key people issues are almost certain to fail in this era of intense competition, employee free agency, and performance at any cost. Today's leaders must be able to create climates that foster not only performance but also pride and purpose. They must have what we refer to as emotional intelligence -- " a heightened sense of self-awareness, the ability to manage their emotions as well as those of others, to build rapport and relationships with a diverse group of people, to motivate others, create a believable vision, and negotiate a broad range of social and business situations." (Fortune 500 Magazine & Hay Group, 1999)

While there are "...no cookie-cutter approaches" in the creation of effective leaders due to the unique nature of each organization and the individual with that origination in the leadership role, there does exist however, a "...process that has been used successfully by numerous organizations to improve leadership and with it, performance." (Fortune 500 Magazine & Hay Group, 1999) Organizations that are stated by Fortune 500 and the Hay Group to be "successful, high-performing" organizations are those that: (1) Assess the motives and styles of their leaders and determine their impact on climate and performance; (2) Create customized, competency-driven, leadership models that support their strategic goals; (3) Expand the emotional intelligence of their leadership; (4) Are committed to extensive development and coaching efforts; and (5) Measure and reward both leadership development and performance." (Ibid) in a study conducted by Fortune 500 and the Hay Group focused toward garnering a better understanding of the issues of leadership in today's pressured business world as well as methods of dealing with them in the conduction of a survey of leadership practices of more than 560 organizations that were 'best admired' organizations among their peers. The comparison was of the"...emphasis placed on leadership, the processes used to identify and develop leaders, and the importance placed on the emotional intelligence of leaders." (Ibid) Stated results are that confirmation was received of the importance of leadership in the success of the organization and also confirmed was the difficulty presented in the creation of leaders who were successful. (Ibid) Findings from the study relate that: "More than 90% of the most admired organizations we surveyed, for example, reported they were satisfied with their executive leadership, compared with less than three-fourths of their peers. At the same time, 83% of the most admired were satisfied with the leadership effectiveness of their senior managers, compared to just over half of their peers a similar gap exists in identifying future leaders. Almost three-fourths of the most admired organizations reported they were very satisfied with their pool of high potentials compared with less than half of their peers. The most admired organizations were also more satisfied with their effectiveness in identifying future leaders, with about two-thirds saying they were very satisfied, compared with less than half of the other organizations." (Ibid)

LEADERSHIP SATISFACTION