In-class exam essay topics

Reason in Promoting Happiness

John Kekes and Plato have argued the involvement of reasoning when it comes to the pursuit of a "true happiness." While both are proponents of elements of reason regarding the state of happiness, Kekes focuses on a much more subjective approach to reasoning and happiness. In his The Examined Life, Kekes defines happiness as a culmination of episodes leading up to an attitude, which he views as one's overall view of satisfaction in life. If one is satisfied by the degree of smaller elements -- or episodes -- of one's life, then one has accomplished a measure of happiness. To Kekes, happiness is a subjective emotion, one determined by one's views of one's life. In this respect, Kekes believes that a person's reasonable distinction between episodes allows the person to evaluate his or her attitude toward the degree of happiness. One satisfying episode does not ultimately lead to one's happiness, according to Kekes.

In this manner, Kekes' views differ from Plato, whose theories of happiness are well documented in The Republic. Plato finds that happiness can be achieved in the pursuit of justice and/or philosophy. In Plato's arguments, the idea of happiness brings about a state of absolute peace and harmony, one that reaches to the very depths of the soul. Happiness is congruent toward justice, while injustice is linked to selfishness and unhappiness (or desire and "unnecessary" pleasure). It is in the constant pursuit of knowledge and understanding that Plato believes one can find happiness. Perhaps it is in this search of knowledge that Kekes and Plato somewhat agree. Kekes says that one cannot be happy unless one has a clear idea of one's life. Plato indicates that a philosophical understanding balances out the soul and the physical form, thus achieving the highest happiness.

2. Happiness as Achievement

Julia Annas' "Happiness as Achievement" argues similarly to the views of John Kekes, who finds that happiness is found through an encompassing look of one's life as a whole. In the same manner, Annas views the culmination of one's labors -- physical or mental -- as the basis for finding happiness. Within a certain achievement -- a type of toil towards a goal -- comes a certain degree of happiness. Happiness is achieved after a meaningful living of one's life. An example she brings up is the process of instant gratification; a pleasure in which one suddenly is bestowed with money or glory or fame unearned. In Annas' argument, one does not attain a lasting happiness after such instant gratification. In order to achieve happiness according to Annas, one must be prepared to work to attain richness, fame, and glory; it is in achieving these goals that make finding happiness a conclusive effort.

Highly different from this view is the belief in hedonism, one which Epicurus is a proponent of. Epicureanism believes in linking happiness to pleasure, unlike the beliefs of Plato, where Plato attributes pleasure as a separate element and unnecessary to achieving happiness. Pleasure as defined in Epicurus' manner is the gaining of knowledge of one's desires and an understanding of the world's nature. This pleasure constitutes tranquility and absence of physical turmoil (Epicurus uses "ataraxia" and "aponia" to describe these two elements); therein pleasure becomes an intrinsic good. Unlike Annas' views of achievement as an overall stepping stone toward attaining happiness, Epicurus would find gratification of such as those aforementioned (money, fame, glory) to be steps toward happiness. In this manner, Annas' philosophical arguments would clash with those of Epicurus.

3. The Thought Experiment and the Experience Machine

Robert Nozick attempts to refute the argument of hedonism -- and utilitarianism in this case -- with his thought experiment. According to Nozick, happiness is not attainable by the hedonistic views of individual and subjective pleasure. Through his thought experiment, Nozick chose to disprove that pleasure is the end result to a means of happiness. The thought experiment brings about the question that, given there is a machine exhibiting such qualities as to produce the most favorable human experiences, whether the person would choose to stay plugged into the "experience machine" or to return to a more realistic experience. In this aspect, Nozick reasons that a utilitarian view would lead to a person being perpetually plugged into the machine, always feeling the pleasurable emotions believed to bring about extreme happiness, in accordance to hedonistic views.