Exploring Difficulties in English Language Communication Skills Among Iraqi High School Students in Australia

Iraqi Students

The literature review provides an abundance of material related to the educational and cultural aspects of Australian society and how those aspects play into the educating process regarding immigrants and especially high school students from Iraq who immigrate to Australia in search of education and a better way of life. The review focuses not only on the generality of those concepts but on specific aspects as well. Some of the items covered by the literature review will include; the different approaches taken by Australian teachers, instructors and administrators in order to teach international students participating in the Australian educational system, the importance and functions of good communication skills (as well as the difference between good and bad skills), the cultural differences found in education, the teaching of English in Australian schools, and the influence of globalization. Additionally, the literature review will take a look at how all the above mentioned components and more, tie together to create an effective study of how Iraqi high school students are assimilated into the English study culture found at most Australian schools. Those specific aspects include how the Australian educational system uses both the grammar translation approach to teaching English and the CLT approach and how those two approaches differ from one another, as well as their advantages and disadvantages.

Grammar Translation vs. CLT Approach

There are a number of approaches currently being used in the Australian educational system to teach English.

Two of the approaches being used are the grammar translation approach and communicative language teaching. One web site that provides readers with a definition of grammar translation may have presented it in the best conceivable manner when it stated "for left-brained students who respond well to rules, structure and correction, the grammar-translation method can provide a challenging and even intriguing classroom environment. For those students who don't respond well to such structures, however, it is obvious that the grammar-translation method must be tempered with other approaches to create a more flexible and conducive methodology" (Thuleen, 1996). Another website described communicative language teaching using almost the exact opposite phraseology by stating "most groups are enthusiastic about the lesson opportunities which CLT offers. However, some also indicated they felt constrained by the system under which they operated, especially those teaching in settings which are particularly exam-focused" (Belchamber, 2007). These are two different styles attempting to teach the same subject.

Grammar Translation Method

The grammar translation method, allows for almost no translation deviation, instead it calls for rote memorization and a rigid phrase for phrase translation process from the target language to the native language and back again, with discussions in between. Grammar translation might best be known for its inherent ability to teach the dead languages (latin and greek as examples). The grammar translation's main approach is to use the written word to teach the target language on a word by word, and phrase by phrase grammar methodology. This approach has been in existence for a number of years and it has been commonly used for a number of language development courses.

One recent study confirms the approach, stating; "the vast majority of language development studies have relied on written transcripts of the speech young children hear around them" (Goodrich, Kam, 2009, p. 81). Whether it has been in existence for decades or not is not the real question, the question that really should be asked is whether it is the most effective manner in which to present English as a second language, especially regarding immigrated Iraqi high school students now immersed in the Australian educational system. After all, there is such a thing as differential item functioning (DIF) which is a statistical methodology that focuses on whether items have an equal probability of a particular response for examinees from different language groups (Wei, Wolfe, 2010, p. 81). According to Wei and Wolfe; "studies reveal two broad potential sources of observed DIF -- linguistic and cultural features" (p. 81), which is the exact reason that many experts deride the grammar translation method; it does not take into account any cultural bias or effects at all to the translations.

The Wei and Wolfe study also found that "children who are raised in different social-cultural contexts and take different language versions of the same instrument may perform differently on items that elicit knowledge or require cognitive skills that are fostered by different sets of cultural values and priorities" (p. 83). Additionally, Li wrote that "one's thinking style or understanding is influenced by cultural values and childrearing processes" (Li, 2005, p. 190). The literature seems to find that the grammar translation method used throughout Australian schools may not be the best method for international students seeking to learn English as a second language.

Communicative Language Translation

Another primary method used to teach English in the Australian educational system is the communicative language translation methodology. This method of teaching does not rely on rote memorization or phrase by phrase translation at all. Instead, CLT provides the students the classroom opportunity to have conversations and discussions using the target language. Studies have shown that the communicative language translation method of teaching allows for a much stronger relationship between the teacher and the student, and even though this relationship might be strong, there is even a stronger relationship "between an individual's language and their personal and ethnic identity (which) has received general acceptance and substantial support within social science literature" (Bishop, 2008, p. 913). The Bishop study also determined that participation in international or local language communities can prove an invaluable part of the learning experience in terms of cultural-linguistic learning" (p. 920). This 'invaluable part' in large part is due to the fact that (according to Bishop) stereotypes may be less likely to be reinforced in a natural language context than in a classroom. If this is true to the CLT method, it is likely to be even more true than in the grammar translation method, especially in the classroom, since the grammar translation method is much more classroom oriented than is the CLT method.

CLT and Grammar Translation Comparison

Whether the teacher is using the CLT or the grammar translation methodology in the classroom, a mixture of both, or some other method entirely, the idea is to teach English to students in the most effective manner. Both the CLT method and grammar translation offer advantages and disadvantages to the teachers and students.

Since "language has been shown to attribute meaning to an individual's understanding" (Kramsch, 2006) it makes perfect sense that the exact opposite is true as well; that an individual's understanding gives meaning to the language. It is important therefore to ensure that students understand the true meaning of the language being taught, and that they are not confined to one methodology over the other.

Advantages of grammar translation include the fact that it has been used effectively for decades to teach different languages, and use breeds comfort. Teachers who have been effective in the past by implementing the grammar translation methodology are likely to be less enthusiastic about incorporating changes into their curriculum or teaching methods. They may also expound upon the fact that rote memorization works well, especially regarding language and word acquisition. In the 1970's, Chomsky (1970) and Read (1971) conducted studies on how children learn languages and discovered that children have an innate ability to learn languages and that the way they do so is through knowledge of the relationships between letters and sounds. Therefore, it is likely that rote memorization allows for an effective way to learn if they repeat the sounds and words over and over. However, CLT also allows for sounds and words, but in a much more informal and conversational method.

Communication skills

Just because the educational system in Australia is teaching English to the international students (including those from Iraq) does not mean that they are teaching the students to communicate, or to communicate in an effective manner.

Communication skills are skills that can be acquired, and should be acquired throughout one's lifetime. That does not mean that they will be acquired on the same scale for every individual, and in fact, there are as many ways to communicate as there are languages to communicate in. Communicating with one's body while one is speaking is natural. Body positions, hand gestures, facial expressions and eye movements are all part of the communication process. As an example, "eye gaze can be used as a cue to the speaker's communicative intention, and help a child infer the meaning of a word" (Baldwin, 2000). This type of communication is known as non-verbal communication as compared to the verbal communication which is the words and sentences spewing forth from our mouths. A third category of communication can be classified as the paraverbal manner of speaking. The paraverbal method of speaking is described as the tone, speed, intonation, pitch and volume in which the voice is used to speak. Working together, all three components can assist the person in delivering a particular message in an effective manner.

What skills are required to communicate?

It is not necessary to have acquired all the communicative skills in order to communicate. For example, an infant can communicate in a general sense the fact that he or she is dissatisfied with the present state of affairs simply by letting out a good bit of yelling. Such an act may not inform the parent of the exact problem, but at least it allows the parent to be informed that a problem exists.

This is not a good example of effective communication and in fact effective communication can be described as; the ability to send messages that are clear, concise and convey the meaning of the message in an effective manner.

At the same time good communication means that the individual should be able to hear and comprehend any messages that other individuals are sending to us. Certainly then there are skills that are necessary to communicate in an effective way. Those skills include language arts, body control, and an understanding or how to compose the message in a manner that will be easily understood by others. Those skills include verbal, non-verbal and even paraverbal knowledge and control. Knowing what words we need is a skill that can be developed through a variety of ways, including reading, writing, speaking and spelling. Non-verbal skills can be developed by watching, observing and listening to the ways and words that other people speak. And paraverbal skills can be gained by practicing how the words are delivered.

Importance of Communication Skills

For the infant described above, limited communication skills are necessary in order to facilitate action. The infant screams or cries loudly, and the parent responds by providing food or a clean diaper or a pat on the back to elicit a burp. However, as the child grows older, life becomes somewhat more complicated and the art of communicating becomes much more important, especially once they reach the age when they begin to attend school. Young people in school are often faced with new and important decisions to make and problems to solve. School is oftentimes the place where "children learn how to make use of internal and external sources to solve problems" (Arslan, 2010, p. 524).

Since is generally accepted that "appropriate problem solving is achieved by effective communication" (McWhirter, Voltan-Acar, 2000) it lends to reason that as these young children grow and blossom, it is extremely important that they learn how to effectively communicate not only with teachers, instructors and administrators, but with their classmates and colleagues as well. This scenario is not only true at younger ages when problems are much simpler, but communication skills are equally (or more so) important at ages when the problems are much more complex.

Imagine then, the importance of communicating in a land where the language is much different than your own, you are a relative newcomer to the country and you are aspiring to create a new place in the world for yourself. Not only would communication be important at this point, but it would also be important for your future as well. Entering a school system that did not have the quality that you might wish for in regards to teaching you those skills via the English language, you might worry for your future. One recent report determined that such a situation might be found in Australia, at least concerning Iraqi, or other international students. The article reported that some universities in Australia were being blamed for allowing students whose first language was not English to graduate with communication skills that were insufficient (Maslen, 2008).

Another aspect to schooling in Australia, from the international student's perspective, is acquiring a language that is not even close or similar to their native language. A study of international students in Finland found that people who lived in countries whose official languages were not commonly spoken in other countries put a lot of emphasis on knowing other foreign languages (Lehtonen, Karjalainen, 2009).

Iraqi students would likely fall into this category of placing emphasis on acquiring a foreign language, and would likely choose English as the language of choice due to its acceptance around the globe.

The importance of acquiring communicative skills does not only affect the Iraqi high school student in Australia, it affects every individual. However, based on the fact that these students are new to the country, new to the language, are looking to forward their education and their career opportunities, it would make sense for the Australian educational system to enhance their learning opportunities if the end goal is to ensure a continuity of citizenship and stewardship by these young immigrants. The act if improving their communicative skills is one that would certainly pay dividends for all involved.

Improving communicative skills

To help these individuals improve their skills, current literature provides a number of methods for doing so. Improving ones communication skills must first start with the knowledge of what is good and what is bad in communication. A basic definition of good communication would be a clear, concise verbal and non-verbal portrayal of a succinct message. A bad communication could be the exact opposite. To improve communicating skills, sorting the good skills from the bad is of paramount importance. Once the knowledge is acquired, practicing good communication techniques in all three categories is an excellent method for improving those skills.

Good communication skills

Listening to someone who is a good communicator can be an enjoyable experience, while listening to someone who is butchering the message through poor communication skills and techniques can be agonizing. If the end goal is to communicate effectively, then the communicator must first know the difference between good and bad communication skills. Good communication skills can include techniques that are verbal, non-verbal and paraverbal in nature. Good verbal communication skills are organized in a comprehensive manner, are concise and convey the message in a succinct manner. The words should flow in an easy manner and should not cause a resistance in the listener; in other words the listener should not have to strain to make sense of what the speaker is saying. The words, or language used, should be free of jargon, slang or code words, and should be spoken in a simple a manner as can be understood by the audience.

Non-verbal skills can be communicated effectively as well. Facial expressions should convey what the message is meant to convey, and not confuse the listener. The body can be used to convey different feelings such as; open arms mean welcome, while folded arms means disapproval or standing up or turning away from someone portrays the feeling of a conversation stopper. Oftentimes a good communicator will mimic the person's language with whom he/she is communicating to ensure a level of comfort. The same thing can be accomplished with the use of non-verbal skills. If a person is not responding to a conversation, opening your arms, unfolding your legs, leaning back, and enjoying a posture of relaxation will oftentimes lessen the mood and raise the comfort level of the participants.

Bad Communication Skills

A good example of bad communication skills might be the old circle game. The way that it works is that a person starts by reciting a simple phrase to the person sitting next to him/her. That person then repeats the phrase to the adjacent person, and so on and so forth, until the phrase has completed a journey completely around the circle and back to the originator. The two phrases are then compared; rarely do they remain the same, and most of the time they are completely different in content and character. This is due primarily to bad listening and communicating skills.

Just like communication skills can be developed and improved, they can also lay dormant or never be attained in the first place, if the person has no desire to attain or improve his/her communication technique, style or language. Examples of bad communication skills include interrupting a person while they are speaking, walking away in the middle of a conversation, or talking with another person while someone else is speaking. Bad communication skills can also take place with body gestures and non-verbal messages delivered in a negative manner. Paraverbal messages can also be used in a negative manner depending on which word is emphasized.

Functions of communication skills

The functions of communication skills are to make a point or deliver a message. This is true whether the message is negative or positive in nature. A boss who has to fire someone, can forewarn that person by his very actions. Inviting the person into a private sanctuary with a sober, concerned or worried look on his face can alert the worker that bad news is coming. Additionally, a positive event can be made even more positive with the right body gestures and signals -- both verbal and non-verbal.

A good communicator will be able to employ communication skills in a skillful manner to convey the message using all three skill categories. The function of those skills are to enhance, enlighten and provide a message in as clear a manner as possible.

Communication and culture

There are different methods for communicating depending on which culture the person is raised or comfortable in. In a recent book on cultural communications, Bowe and Martin state that even though speakers who are communicating interculturally typically do so using one single language, each individual usually brings to the table their own cultural expectations based on their understanding of the language (Bowe, Martin, 2007). Another study determined that the "important starting point in thinking about 'culture', in the context of intercultural communication, is the amount of baggage carried by generalized differences between national cultures" (Durant, Shepherd, 2009, p. 151) and the study further found that "communication in intercultural settings often takes place on a somewhat unequal footing" (p. 149). If what the study discovered is true, and there is no reason to believe otherwise, then it becomes much more important for those seeking to teach English to Iraqi students to understand the culture in which those students have been raised, or at the very least to understand the context in which the language they are attempting to learn is comprehended in the most effective way. This might be especially true in non-verbal communication as body gestures and motions quite possibly mean many different things to many different people depending on what culture you are raised in.

Nonverbal communication

As stated earlier, non-verbal communication skills are as equally important as the words that are said. Showing someone the middle digit can mean the same thing to everyone around the world, but that is not the only non-verbal signal that is used, and in fact it is a much less common gesture than most people might think. Other much more common gestures take place on a regular basis every minute of every day. One recent study determined that "90% of what people say and feel is communicated through their actions, not their words" (Hansen, 2010, p. 35). The same study found that "children learn both verbal and nonverbal communication strategies by imitating parents, teachers, and other significant people in their lives" (p. 35). The emphasis on teaching, especially language teaching, should take that fact into consideration, especially since non-verbal communication to one person might mean something entirely different to another.

According to Hansen most teachers understand that it is not only their words that are important when teaching, but their body's actions as well. Hansen states that "teachers need to learn the different body languages associated with the cultures represented in their increasingly diverse classrooms…teachers must learn how to teach without talking" (p. 36).

Middle East Education

Learning how to teach without talking is especially important in diverse classrooms where the students come from countries where the native language is not commonly spoken outside of that country, such as students immigrating to Australia from Iraq.

Countries in the Middle East not only have entirely different cultures to contend with, their educational systems are very different as well. Many of the educational systems in Middle Eastern countries are based on religious backgrounds rather than educational backgrounds. That's not to say that religious educational systems are any better or worse than other educational systems, but the Middle East is also well-known for its low quality of education.

One recent study determined that the "low quality of education is a primary concern and one of the greatest challenges facing education and government leaders across the region" (Chapman, Miric, 2009, p. 311). Additionally, the study determined that "student achievement across MENA (Middle East and North Africa) lags behind many other parts of the world" (p.311). The reasons behind this discrepancy are varied. The reasons, according to a United Nations Development Report (2002) are threefold. The three factors include; 1) an increase in the educational disparity within countries, 2) a decrease in the quality of education despite high per capita education expenditures, and 3) a mismatch between labour market needs and the output of educational systems (UNDP, 2002).

Over the past decade these factors and others have been responded to in a variety of ways. When the UNDP study first came out another study in that same year offered suggestions to address the problems faced by the MENA countries regarding their educational systems. The Galal study found that three approaches were being bandied about; "engineering, organizational and public accountability" (2002) and that "effective reform requires adopting appropriate measures in each case."

Reforms have been adopted in many of the countries, but the numbers are still not encouraging over a decade later. The Australian educational system, on the other hand, does not have nearly the problems that MENA countries are facing.

Australian Education and Culture

The Australian educational system has recently undergone some heralded changes that have marked inclusion of all students. A 2008 report found that the newly elected 'liberal' government's educational focus was to emphasize the fact that "social inclusion must be a core responsibility for all institutions that accept public funding, irrespective of history and circumstances" (Bradley, Noonan, Nugent, Scales, 2008, p. 33). With that statement in mind, more inclusion of those students who had traditionally been left behind in the Australian educational system became the primary focus.