Applying Fowler's faith development theory to a human resources director

Case Study: Faith Development Using Fowler's Perspective

I. Introduction
Over the past two decades, James Fowler’s (1981) theory of faith development has been the focus of a growing body of scholarship in the United States as well as abroad (Streib 99). This growing interest is due in large part to the fact that an application of Fowler’s faith development theory can provide practitioners with useful insights and revelations concerning the faith development trajectories of other people. The purpose of this case study is to apply Fowler’s faith development theory to a middle-aged, single, white American female interviewee who has a bachelor’s degree in organizational leadership and who is employed as a human resources director for a small consulting firm. Both of the interviewee’s parents are alive and she maintains a close relationship with them as well as with her younger brother. In addition, an analysis of this “sacred human document” using Freudian defense mechanisms, Jungian personality types and Jamesian mysticism is followed by an application of Erickson’s stages of psychosocial development. Further, Fowler’s faith development perspective is applied to the interviewee, followed by a general integrative discussion concerning the interviewee. Finally, a summary of the research and key findings concerning the above-described analysis and applications are presented in the case study’s conclusion.

II. Classic Psychological Perspectives
Freudian defense mechanisms
Virtually all humans possess a preferred concept of themselves, and in the overwhelming majority of cases, this concept is positive. In many cases, however, this view is frequently inflated beyond its reality, and when threats to this inflated preferred concept are encountered, human typically employ a wide range of defense mechanisms in order to resolve the cognitive dissonance it causes (Baumeister, Dale and Sommer 1081). In this regard, Baumeister and his associates report that, “In such cases, it is necessary for the self to have some mechanism or process to defend itself against the threatening implications of this event. Such processes are commonly called defense mechanisms” (1081). Sigmund Freud’s seminal work in this area resulted in the identification of several types of defense mechanisms that humans use to protect their preferred view of themselves (Baumeister et al. 1081).
The most recent scholarship in this area has provided substantial evidence concerning seven specific Freudian defense mechanisms. Of these seven defense mechanisms, reaction formation, isolation, and denial have been singled out as representing some of the more common types of defense mechanisms with substantial evidence in support of their relevance to the human condition, but there is less evidence concerning other Freudian defense mechanisms such as undoing, projection and displacement (Baumeister et al. 1081).
More recently, George Vaillant expanded on Freud's defense mechanism work. According to one authority, “Freud simply viewed ego defense mechanisms as various ways that people manage the anxiety that the ego encounters. Vaillant took Freud's defense mechanisms and added some of his own and organized then into four levels, or hierarchies, ranging from the unhealthiest responses to ego anxiety (level 1) to the healthiest (level 4)” (George Vaillant and Defense Mechanisms 1), Based on his studies, Vaillant maintained the significant emotional impairment is evident when people use lower-level defense mechanisms. Such impairments, however, tend to diminish as each level of Vaillant’s defense mechanisms are used to the extent that individuals who employ level 4 defense mechanisms are able to discern positive outcomes (George Vaillant and Defense Mechanisms 2). A concise breakdown of each of Vaillant’s four levels of defense mechanisms is presented below:
Level 1 – Pathological
· Almost always are severely pathological.
· Permit one to effectively eliminate the need to cope with reality.
· Pathological users frequently appear irrational.
· Common in overt psychosis, but found in dreams and throughout childhood as well.
Level 2 – Immature
· Often present in adults and more commonly in adolescents.
· Lessen anxiety provoked by threatening people or by uncomfortable reality.
· Excessively use results in socially undesirable, immature, difficult to deal with behavior, often
· Seriously out of touch with reality.
· Often seen in severe depression and personality disorders.
· In adolescence, the occurrence of all of these defenses is normal.
Level 3 – Neurotic
Fairly common in adults, have short-term advantages in coping, but can often cause long-term problems in relationships, work and in enjoying life when used as one's primary style of coping
with the world.
Level 4 – Mature
· Commonly found among emotionally healthy adults
· Considered mature, even though many have origins in an immature stage of development.
· Optimize success in life and relationships.
· Use enhances pleasure and feelings of control, integrate conflicting emotions and thoughts, while still remaining effective
· The use of this level is generally considered virtuous (Vaillant’s categorization of defense mechanisms 2).
Based on a careful review of the interviewee’s transcript, the individual of interest to this case study uses level 3 and 4 defense mechanisms to help her cope with his realities and the challenges that life presents, including the death that awaits all human beings. This perspective is fairly commonplace among many Jewish people because their dogma is relatively vague on this fundamental issue. Nevertheless, the interviewee’s response underscores the view that human life is replete with threats to individuals’ self-perceptions and they use different types of defense mechanisms to help protect their ego and inflated self perceptions.

Jungian personality types
The theory of personality types developed by Carl Jung was based on individual preferences (Thornton and Peltier 490). Based on a careful view of the transcript, an application of the Myers-Brigg’s Jungian personality type to the interviewee indicates that this individual is an ENTP (“debater”). People with this personality type are often described as inquisitive, clever, innovative and expressive. In sum, ENTPs are characterized by being idea-oriented, a trait that has resulted in this personality type being alternatively referred to as "the innovator," "the visionary," and "the debater" (Characteristics of the ENTP Personality Type 3).

Jamesian mysticism
Applied to the interviewee, Jamesian mysticism types provide some valuable insights concerning the mysticism-relevant aspects of this individual (Hood 37). In particular, Hood would likely regard the interviewee’s ambiguity and uncertainties concerning her religious beliefs as an indication of her efforts to resolve other dilemmas in her life. For example, the interviewee noted that:
A lot of my life is actually centered around Judaism, and by this I mean a regular sort of participation, not a once a year type of observance, but a lot of study, a lot of discussion, Sunday school teaching, camp work, and many of the friends I am with are all tied up with Judaism and so it is a regular practice, a regular observance of actual religious ritual including the Sabbath and the holidays.
More to the point, despite the interviewee’s professed commitment to following the religious practices of Judaism, this commitment was based more on a desire to belong to something larger than herself and the sense of camaraderie and community such religious practices provide. In this regard, the interviewee emphasized that, “I really don’t believe in God, I don’t think, or in a type of god that commands and therefore I obey. I really see God in some sense as man created, as a man-created image and because man cannot explain certain things he says there is a God.” When asked for further clarification on this point, the interviewee stated:
I think many of the roots of God in the same way that Nietzsche writes about it, perhaps in terms of mythology, in terms of primitive life. I can see how the idea of God could have been developed but I can’t relate to it, I can only relate to it in that sense. I can’t see it as personal, as some other forces.
It is also noteworthy that the interviewee had completed a sort of year-long pilgrimage to Israel to “get in touch” with her feelings and beliefs about Judaism. This attempt to resolve the challenges that she was facing in her life is not uncommon, of course, but it does highlight the fact that the interviewee felt that she was at something of a crossroads in her life that demanded more than a casual analysis.
Indeed, a recent Pew survey determined that more than three-quarters (76%) of Jews reported that “they were at least somewhat emotionally attached to Israel. In addition, almost half said that caring about Israel is an essential part of being Jewish (with most of the rest saying it is important although not essential) and nearly half reported that they had personally traveled to Israel” (Rubin, 2019). In other words, the interviewee was trying to “walk to walk” as well as “talk the talk” about the centrality of Judaism in her life.
Eriksonian psychosocial development stages
Drawing and expanding upon Freud’s psychosexual theory, Erickson’s sequential stages of psychosocial development also provide a useful framework in which to examine the degree to which individuals have successfully navigated the challenges and opportunities they have faced during their lives. Although Erickson’s developmental framework should not be regarded as providing absolute demarcations of individual development, it does provide a useful way to compare empirical observations and self-reports with others. For instance, one authority reports that, “According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy” (Erickson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development 3).
It is entirely possible, though, for people to exhibit characteristics from more than one developmental stage from time to time and over time, and each individual’s experiences contribute to a unique developmental manifestation. Notwithstanding these constraints, Erickson’s stages can be applied to individuals of all ages and dispositions to generally gauge their level of development as shown in Table 1 below; for brevity, only the last three development stages are described since these are those relevant to the interviewee.
Table 1
Erickson’s psychosocial development stages
Development stage
Description

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After people have developed a sense of self in adolescence, they are ready to share their life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that people must have a strong sense of self before they can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves finding indivdiuals’ life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, people are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity versus despair. Erikson said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.



Source: Adapted from Erickson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development 5-6
Based on her responses, the interviewee’s psychosocial development appears to a blend of the intimacy versus isolation and generativity versus stagnation stages. Indeed, the transcript identifies some significant overlaps between these development stages as exemplified by her comments that:
I’ve begun to really feel the cycles, feel myself as part of the cycles, and feel that Judaism very much is attuned to these. For example, the cycles of a day which is emphasized in Judaism, the idea if one really observes the set prayers and rituals even during a day, there’s a separate day, there’s a separate week, there’s a separate month, a lunar month. There are times, there are reasons and each of the holidays in fact every season is really marked by a holiday at some time or another that comes around at harvest time for instance.
The perception of the cyclical nature of human existence is reflective of the generativity versus stagnation stage; however, other responses were more reflective of the intimacy versus isolation stage. For instance, when asked about her relationship between her feelings and her power or ability with respect to her strength of faith, the interviewee responded:
This is something I haven’t really thought about before because what happens is that no matter how impotent and how totally depressed I become or totally feeling not being able to create, not being able to accomplish anything, somehow there is still within me this faith that I will be able to accomplish it, I’m just not doing it now. There is one thing that’s very strong within me, the feeling of new beginnings.
Notwithstanding the nebulosity of this response, though, the interviewee did follow up this response with a clarification that was reflective of the generativity versus stagnation stage, perhaps venturing even into the integrity versus despair stage:
I’ve begun to feel a sort of destiny, I don’t know whether it’s my will or whether it’s just forces around me, but feeling on the one hand incredibly powerful and on the other hand incredibly impotent at times, and this I’m beginning to connect up with faith, and feeling the cycles during which my life will go – I can look back now and see the whole year as a year in which I think was a real ‘down’ year, followed by a year in which I felt incredibly creative.
In other words, the interviewee remains on a path of self discovery that includes some overlap between development stages as propounded by Erikson, but there are some other useful tools that are available that can help illuminate her faith development progress, including Fowler’s faith development perspective as discussed further below.

III. Fowler’s Faith Development Perspective
A copy of the completed Faith Development Interview scoring form for the interviewee is provided in Table 2 below.
Table 2
Faith Development Stage Scoring Form
Age: 40 years Gender: Female
Aspects and related questions
Passage number(s)
Criteria number(s)
Stage score


A. Form of logic





5. Breakthrough experiences?
15
5
4


6. Times of crisis or suffering?
9
5
5


11. Change one thing?
10
4
4


15. Decision (A)
11
5
5





Average aspect a stage score
4.5

B. Social perspective taking





2. Past relationships
21
5



7. Your parents?
23
5



8. Current relationships?
19, 21
3






Average aspect B stage score
4.33

C. Form of moral judgment





16. What makes an action right?
27, 29
5



23. What is sin?
11
5



24. Explain evil?
27
5



25. Religious conflicts?
10, 11, 13, 15
4






Average aspect C stage score
4.75

D. Bounds of social awareness





1. Marker events?
17
5



3. Changes in relationships?
19
4



9. Groups, institutions, causes?
22, 23, 24
5






Average aspect D stage score
4.66

E. Locus of authority





10. Life has meaning?
1, 2
4



12. Beliefs, values, commitments?
8
3



17. Actions right? Accountable to?
9
5






Average aspect E stage score
4

F. Form of world coherence





14. Mature faith?
11, 14
5



18. Human life has a purpose?
12
5



19. Death?
7
5



20. A religious person?
1
4






Average aspect F stage score
4.75

G. Symbolic function





4. Image of God?
11
5



13. Harmony?
11, 12
5



21. Symbols or ritual?
12
5



22. Spiritual discipline?
11
5






Average aspect G stage score
5










Average of all aspect stage scores
45.7










Global stage score
Stage 4/5



As shown in Table 2 above, the interviewee’s stage scores on all aspects are comparable, but there are some outliers that are noteworthy this aspect A, including those excerpted below.

Aspect A: Form of Logic
Many of the interviewee’s responses were prefaced by the qualification that she had not really given this matter much thought heretofore, and this is congruent with many other people who may not know precisely what they think about a given issue until they are required to articulate a response. When she was forced to codify her thinking in the past, the process did result in some breakthroughs although these could not really be characterized as epiphanies, but more in the realm of formulating effective resolutions to crises or individual suffering. For example, the interviewee related an anecdote about pointedly asking her mother about some of the religious practices they followed and came to the conclusion they were “absurd.”
Likewise, in response to what factors affected her successful resolution of a recent crisis in her life, the interviewee reported that:
I was really questioning what I was. This was my last year of school. I returned from a year in Israel to my last year of school and a year in which I hadn’t dealt with a lot of questions like why I was taking the subjects I was taking and what I was planning to do afterwards and at the same time I had an incredibly heavy academic load [while] most of my friends did not. I also had begun to doubt that I could create anything because I just really felt no positive feedback and I questioned the value of everything I was doing yet was trying to force myself to do this incredibly heavy academic course load and so it was more that than anything else.
It was the course load and so it was more that than anything else.
This observation reinforces the notion that the interviewee recognizes the constraints that she has faced in her life and her need to take the steps that are needed to change her life in positive ways.

Aspect B: Social Perspective Taking
As noted above, although she does practice certain religious observances and engages in prayer, the interviewee specifically disavows the existence of God. This view is similar but somewhat different than her parents. For instance, when asked whether there are any differences between her faith and her parents, the interviewee responded:
I would say I am probably . . . I think that my parents are not, first of all, their own outlooks differ somewhat. My mother is more religious in the sense of observance and careful about observance. My father and my mother are in some sense, but my mother is still skeptical of God although she doesn’t deny him in the way that I do. I guess she’s skeptical in a certain sense of a personal God because when that actually interferes in life because when I questioned her, she can’t. She’ll express that feeling and my father will certainly express that feeling of certain skepticism and yet they are both more willing to say they are both less likely to feel hypocritical let’s say reading a prayer or attending an observance.
The interviewee’s relationship with her younger brother has also been a source of thought provocation with respect to her religious beliefs. According to the interviewee, “[My brother] is two years younger than me. I would rationalize an observance of something, say, well I don’t believe in God but there’s a value to this because of family, or because of sharing or something. He was less family oriented than I, and I think in some sense he was less able to rationalize than I am.”
In addition, the interviewee also emphasized that she continued to participate in prayer and other religious observances out of habit rather than a firm belief in their necessity. For instance, the interviewee noted that:
I did not think that I believed in a God, and therefore, of an individual relationship to Judaism involved being able to pray and carry through certain rituals which were not related to other people and therefore why carry through with these, unless they were related somehow to God, or at least that was I was sort of saying to myself.
Similarly, the interviewee also stated that on many occasions, she would observe other religious practices such as Jewish dietary restrictions only out of courtesy for her hosts. Although these differing views have not adversely affected the interviewee’s relationship with her parents or sibling, they do make it clear that the interviewee’s path to faith development is somewhat stagnated.

Aspect C: Form of Moral Judgment
The interviewee’s belief that life does not have any real meaning beyond the good works that people do for others suggests that she has developed a personal code of morality that helps her navigate moral dilemmas. For instance, the interviewee noted that:
I think I’m become aware that certain rituals are very important and I’m aware that rituals are important to me and some of the importance can be found from these through the traditions, through certain traditional Judaic rituals, certain prayers, certain observances and when these can be meaningful, I’m very glad to have them as part of my life.
Despite her religious conflicts and avowed disbelief in the existence of God, the interviewee was clear that these and other religious practices helped her stay on a moral path where the rightness or wrongness of individual acts can be determined, and how variances from this moral path invariably lead to sin and evil.

Aspect D: Bounds of Social Awareness
As noted above, a poignant memory of the interviewee concerns an incident with her mother when the interviewee was quite young (she thinks it occurred when she still attending elementary school but she is not certain). The interviewee states that she questioned her mother concerning the rationale behind certain religious observances and recalls characterizing them as “absurd.” Although the interviewee does engage in prayer and various religious observances and practices, she remains firmly committed to the belief that life is a transitory experience that ends with death and there is no afterlife. For instance, with respect to the institution of Judaism, the interviewee reported that:
The reason I to think about that is that well, there are many times I have said prayers as part of a service and thought about what I am saying and thought about motivations for saying it, thought about emotions but I’m not sure that’s really praying. I sort of draw a distinction between the intellectual process that Judaism and that prayer had provoked in me which I value very much – and the act of praying in which there is some sense, even being taken out of yourself, or in some sense a whole emotional involvement in it.
In sum, these observations reflect the fact that the interviewee continues to question her religious beliefs and how they affect her relationship with family members and others.

Aspect E: Locus of Authority
The interviewee was somewhat ambivalent about the meaning of life. For instance, the interviewee noted that, “I’ve very much felt that human life was an outcome of chemistry and that it exists in a certain sense, I think, almost in the attitude of Ecclesiastics which says there is no real purpose to life but after you come to the conclusion there’s no purpose in life, he ends by saying, therefore, you know, live and enjoy and do God’s will or something to that effect.” In addition, the interviewee was also absolutely clear about her views concerning the afterlife. For example, in response to a question concerning her views about the afterlife, the interviewee stated:
Whatever meaning I have in terms of whatever meaning there is for my life, it is while I am living, for me. Yet I do feel that I do not believe in a life after death. I don’t at this point believe in any sort of reincarnation and I don’t know a lot about the other theories but I know a little about it and I just don’t feel like I’ll come back in another life or that this life that I’m living now is in any way a prelude to a coming life that‘s either more or less important in an afterworld. I believe that when I die I just disintegrate and become part of the earth.
This response underscores the interviewee’s religious beliefs while also emphasizing the personal accountability that is involved in daily life as well as the methodological manner in which she approaches decision making.

Aspect F: Symbolic Function
The interviewee’s responses concerning her relationship with her younger brother and parents makes it clear that she has given this issue a significant amount of thought, but she remains relatively undecided concerning her religious beliefs and how she should observe her religious practices. For example, the response by the interviewee concerning the rituals she currently observes is telling in this regard:
What I have to realize is that even as an individual, at least up until now, Judaism as an individual, if I can at least separate myself from it, as it relates me to other people. One of these things has even occurred during a prayer service which I find probably the most difficult thing to accept right now.
In addition, the interviewee also indicated that although her religious views are similar to her parents’ beliefs, she did make the point that she began questioning her faith at an earlier age than her parents. For instance, the interviewee stated that:
I think [my parents] probably just grew up accepting this so some extent. Although they’re thinking people so they think about it, and they’re skeptical about a lot of things and not accepting of many things. But somehow maybe we began questioning as kids earlier, openly, and discussing with – I remember discussing these things with my parents and in very angry terms, asking my mother, ‘You know, how can you possibly be lighting the Sabbath lights. What an absurd thing to be doing”

IV. General Integrative Discussion
Faith development theory as propounded by Fowler has become a popular way to examine individuals’ progress in their faith development (Streib 100). One of the major methodological strengths of Fowler’s faith development theory is its ability to be applied to different individuals in innovative ways, a process which can help identify previously undiscerned or nebulous beliefs and views (Streib 100). Applied to the interviewee of interest to this case study, it is reasonable to suggest that she remains on an active path towards faith development by calling into question certain aspects of Judaism with respect to religious practices and observances.
The analysis of the interviewee’s transcript indicates that she uses various Freudian defense mechanisms to protect her preferred sense of self, including isolation and denial of those religious beliefs that she regards more as a tradition that holds value for her family and community rather than being a personal relationship with the Almighty. Likewise, the application of the Myers-Brigg’s Jungian personality type showed that the interviewee’s personality type of ENTP can be classified as “the debater,” a characterization that was consistently reinforced throughout the interview. The analysis of the interviewee in terms of Jamesian mysticism indicates that she continues to question the legitimacy of her religious beliefs even as she practices them, a tendency that is also reflected in other areas of her life in her efforts to resolve uncertainties and ambiguous situations.
The application of Erickson’s stages of development also indicated that the interviewee‘s psychosocial development remains a work in progress, most particular with respect to her personal relationships and career path. The fact that the interviewee has succeeded in reaching stage 5 of Fowler’s faith development theoretical framework indicates that she has devoted significant amounts of time and effort into assessing her religious beliefs as well as those held by her parents and younger brother. Moreover, the interviewee also expressed the view that she should continue to “fake it until she makes it” with respect to her faith by continuing her religious observances and practices, including regular prayer.
V. Conclusion
The research was consistent in showing that humans are remarkably complex creatures that defy easy analysis with respect to their faith development. Because faith manifests itself in unique ways in different people, this analysis is even more challenging but there are some tools and methods available that can help facilitate the process, including Freudian defense mechanisms, Jungian personality types, Jamesian mysticism and Erickson’s stages of psychosocial development. Likewise, Fowler’s faith development theory provides a useful framework in which to evaluate the progress individuals have made on their lifelong journey towards self actualization. In the case of the interviewee of interest to this case study, the applications of these tools and theoretical frameworks helped to identify several factors that have contributed to her current situation with respect to her religious views, including most especially her continuing observance of religious practices that she may consider little more than tradition, but this tradition has value for family and friends so she continues these observances in her daily life. In the final analysis, this interviewee’s beliefs mirror those of countless others who have come to a crossroads in their lives where solidifying beliefs assumes paramount importance, and she consistently made the point that the interview process itself helped her to articulate views that were previously nebulous.

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