Intergenerational transmission of family violence and delinquency

Family Violence and Crime

FAMILY DELINQUENCY and CRIME

This work reports research related to family delinquency and crime and specifically will explain the 'cycle of violence' hypothesis as it relates to intergenerational transmission of mistreating children as well as explaining the 'double jeopardy' hypothesis as it relate to women being role models for victims of abuse. This work will further explain, as it relates to 'Patterson's Coercion Model' the factors that lead to the inception and evolution of delinquency and crime and will include comments regarding the link between family functioning and involvement with a deviant peer group. The concepts and principles of the 'Social Learning Theory' will be reviewed as well as will 'vicarious learning' and the views of Bandura as to how vicarious learning might lead to the inception and evolution of delinquency and crime. Also explained will be 'authoritarian parenting' and 'permissive parenting style' in relation to which style of parenting tends to be the most effective way to follow in child rearing. The factors will be discussed as related through studies and theories as to which would lead to a 'life-course' trajectory of adult crime and deviance.

I. CYCLE of VIOLENCE RELATING (INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION of MISTREATMENT of CHILDREN)

Research supports the belief that mistreatment of children can be understood as a 'cycle-of-violence' that is a process of intergenerational transmission.. The American Academy of Family Physicians: Policy and Advocacy in its' 'Violence' Position Paper states that family violence "permeates our society" affecting people on the individual level as well as having an impact upon the family physicians, parents, spouses, educators and citizens within society." (2007) This work states as well the fact that in traditional view violence among family members has been considered 'private' and not something discussed with those outside of the family however over he past two decades the justice system has attempted to address the problem through many venues of seeking resolution to the large societal problem. Violence of this sort is a social ill and is a problem that is medical as well when one considers that between 2 and 4 million women are abused each year and the fact that approximately somewhere in the range of 2,000 to 4,000 die each year due to spousal abuse. The 'Violence' Policy Brief defines family violence as "...the intentional intimidate or abuse of children, adults or elders by a family member, intimate partner or caretaker to gain power and control over the victim." (2007)

There are also different forms of abuse identified, which are inclusive of: "...physical and sexual assault, emotional or psychologic mistreatment, threats and intimidation, economic abuse and violation of individual rights." (2007) Abuse is categorized by the 'Violence' Policy Brief as follows: (1) physical; (2) Psychologic or emotional abuse; (3) Economic abuse; and (4) Violation of individuals rights can include isolation of a victim from friends or family,; denial of access to medical care and it is noted that the victim "may be of any age group and either gender." (2007)

The work of Simons, Johnson, Beaman, and Conger entitled: "Explaining Women's Double Jeopardy: Factors that Mediate the Association between Harsh Treatment as a Child and Violence by a Husband" published in the Journal of Marriage and the Family states the fact that past research has stated finding that "women who experience harsh parenting as children are at risk for assault from their spouse during adulthood." (1993) This study investigated "the extent to which this association is mediated by the victim's perceptions of helplessness, commitment to traditional gender beliefs, level of education, and involvement in aggressive/deviant behavior through structural equation modeling in a sample comprised of 204 women who were both mothers and recently divorced. The findings of the study indicate that "the relationship between exposure to harsh parenting and subsequent abuse by a husband is mediated by a woman's involvement in aggressive/deviant behavior." (1993) in other words, when a woman is raised by a father who is verbally abusive or physically abusive or even hostile the woman, in adulthood, is likely to "affiliate with and marry men with similar characteristics." (1993) as well, these men have a tendency to "engage in a variety of deviant behavior, including violence toward their wives." (1993) Another findings in the study as well is others is that exposure during childhood to "abusive parenting" is a determinant of ensuing domestic assault. Other studies, including the study of Egeland, Jacobvitz, & Papatola (1987) and the study of Simons, Whitbeck, Conger & Wu (1991) that individuals who are treated harshly during their childhood are at a higher risk for assaulting their own children.

II. PATTERSON'S COERCION MODEL

One model used in attempting to explain how the parents who are unskilled might reinforce the antisocial behaviors of their children "inadvertently" or unintentionally is 'Patterson's Coercion' model. Antisocial behaviors include noncompliance with rules and social norms, aggression and tantrums, to name only a few. Within the theoretical framework of this model the parent responds to negative behavior by 'giving in' sometimes and then by alternatively disciplining in harsh manner or responding in an explosive manner. The problem lies within the inconsistency in the responses of the parent and the child "learns to counter this punitive acts by the parent with more aggressive behavior or tantrums, leading to escalating 'coercive interchanges' which has been cited in the work of Baum & Forehand (1981) and the work of Patterson (1986) and as stated in the work of NCEO in the work entitled: "Evaluating the National Outcomes: Program Outcomes for Children" (2007)

IV. VICARIOUS LEARNING and INCEPTION and EVOLUTION of DELINQUENCY and CRIME (BANDURA)

Albert Bandura's theory of behaviorism emphasized experimental models and observable, measurable, or manipulative variables and largely ignores that which is subjective or internal in nature. However, this failed to explain an observable phenomenon of violence and aggression in adolescents so Bandura built upon this formula stating that while it is true that environment is a determinant in behavior, at the same time behavior is as well a determinant in environment. (Boree, 2006; paraphrased) This concept was referred to by Bandura is 'reciprocal determinism' or in other words: "...the world and a person's behavior cause each other." (Boree, 2006) Bandura went one step further as he observed the fact that psychological processes are comprised of the individual's ability to "entertain images in not only the individual's mind but also in language. Bandura has been named the 'father of the cognitivist movement. In a very important study, specifically the 'Bobo Doll Study' Bandura established the steps involved in the modeling process which are those as follows: (1) Attention; (2) Retention; (3) Reproduction; (4) Motivation with motives of: (1) past reinforcement; (2) promised reinforcements; and - Vicarious reinforcement, or seeing and recalled the model being reinforced. (Boree, 2006)

V. AUTHORITARIAN PARENTING STYLE vs. PERMISSIVE PARENTING STYLE

The 'authoritarian' parent makes great demands from their children but provide no response but give orders and set strictly-enforced rules expecting the children to obey without question. This is a 'military style' that is known to lead to physical abuse. The 'authoritative' parent is stated to be parents who set stated limits for their children but as well listen to and nurture the children. The 'permissive' parent is one who encourage their children fully emphasizing creativity and feelings with no set limits however, the children of these parents do not feel loved due to lack of restrictions and are rebellious individuals. The second stated parenting style, specifically the 'authoritative' parenting style is generally believed among researchers to be the optimum parenting style for positive outcomes specifically relating to intergenerational transmission of cyclic problems relating to abuse and violence in families.

VI. LIFE COURSE TRAJECTORY of CRIME and VIOLENCE

It is stated in the work of Robert J. Sampson and John H. Laub entitled: "A Life-Course View of the Development of Crime " that a life course view....tends to emphasize the notion that people get 'locked' into certain trajectories." or, in other words, "... people construct their lives within the content of ongoing constraints." This is viewed as a continuous social reproduction." (2005) the work of Moffitt (1993, 1994) posited "two distinct categories of individuals, each possessing a unique natural history of antisocial behavior over the life course - Life-Course-Persistent and Adolescence-Limited Offenders." (Sampson and Laub, 2003) the argument of Moffitt is that "life-course persisters have etiological roots traced to childhood risk factors such as temperament, low verbal IQ and poor self-control." (Sampson and Laub, 2003) Sampson and Laub state that "Life-course persisters, although small in number, do enormous damage because they account for the lion's share of adult misconduct." (2003)

SUMMARY and CONCLUSION

Findings in this research include the fact that a 'cycle-of-violence' exists within family violence that is transferred from generation to generation in the form of abuse whether physical or verbal. Patterson's Coercion model explains how parents may reinforce the pattern of abuse and while a victim to the abuse also becomes a perpetrator of abuse. Albert Bandura's vicarious learning theory has been reviewed as well as have the different parenting styles and the effects of those styles of parenting upon the children and the resulting behavior of the children associated with the different styles of parenting. Finally, this work has related how a 'life-course trajectory of crime' may result when a child is reared in a hostile or abusive environment.