Federal Plans for Post War European Order Within Anti-Fascist Movements During World War Two

European Federalism: Historical Analysis

Fascism is considered to be a political belief and concept, which is based on the principle that social, economic and cultural and traditional beliefs of a country must be used in order to increase nationalism. In Europe, fascist movements had emerged in twentieth century. The goal of these fascist movements was to promote fundamentalist and fanatic beliefs in order to deal with the social and political turmoil that occurred in the European region after the end of World War I. Federalism is considered to be the theory, which is based on the principles of federation, which seeks to create a balance of power by dividing it among the member of the same institution. The aim of this paper is to historically analyze the rise of European Union from 1918 to the end of World War II in the lights of broad and diverse academic resources. Furthermore, the Threat of Fascism

Fascism is considered to be a political belief and concept, which is based on the principle that social, economic and cultural and traditional beliefs of a country must be used in order to increase nationalism. It completely repudiates the principles of liberty including freedom rights, individual rights and other democratic values and ideas (Boka, 2005, 7). The goals and objectives of fascism are idealistic in nature and promise to build utopia to its followers but in reality, fascist movements have brought nothing but destruction to societies where it is entrenched. There is no doubt that fascism represents racism, discrimination, violence, aggression, fundamentalism, etc.

The term was introduced by Benito Mussolini in the year 1919, an Italian dictator. " The term comes from the Italian word fascio, which means ?nion-or ?eague. It also refers to the ancient Roman symbol of power, the fasces, a bundle of sticks bound to an ax, which represented civic unity and the authority of Roman officials to punish wrongdoers" (Boka, 2005, 9).

In Europe, fascist movements had emerged in twentieth century. The goal of these fascist movements was to promote fundamentalist and fanatic beliefs in order to deal with the social and political turmoil that occurred in the European region after the end of World War I (Boka, 2005,15)

. The fascist movements in Europe failed in the European region except for Germany and Italy. During the time of World War I, the fascist movements in Germany and Italy had been successful in gaining complete power in their respective countries and thus, sought to seek full and complete control over Europe. This resulted in World War II, in which millions of innocent people died. The impact of fascism on the European community cannot be forgotten and therefore, the era of 1918 till 1945 is considered to be the fascist era.

Federalism

Federalism is considered to be the theory, which is based on the principles of federal, which seeks to create a balance of power by dividing it among the member of the same institution. A federal state is different from the unitary state on the basis of power as the "sovereignty in federal political orders is non-centralized, often constitutionally, between at least two levels so that units at each level have final authority and can be self-governing in some issue area" (Boka, 2005, 18). Thus, citizens living in federation have individual rights. The member unit and the center have the power, which is divided. This division is dependent on international, foreign and defense policy. The member units responsible for making decisions can also take active part in the central decision process. Federalism has gained significant attention worldwide. It is defined as a theory or concept, which divides the power between each and every member unit in a federation. A federation is defined as "a territorial division of power between constituent units -- sometimes called 'provinces', 'cantons', or confusingly 'states' -- and a common government. This division of power is typically entrenched in a constitution which neither a member unit nor the common government can alter unilaterally" (Boka, 2005, 18).

History of Federalism

This section of the paper seeks to discuss the history of federalism. According to researchers, Johannes Athusius is considered to be the pioneer of federalism theory. He written a book by the name of Politica Methodice Digesta, in which he made arguments that the city of Emden must be autonomous. Authusius had madea strong impact on several individuals and communities specifically Calvinism and French Huguenots (Boka 2006,310). To show opposition against oppression and tyranny, Calvinists devised "a doctrine of resistance as the right and duty of "natural leaders" to resist tyranny"( Boka 2006,311)

. Their belief was that "sovereignty in the social circles subordinate only to God's laws" (Boka 2006,311). On the other hand, the French Huguenots were Protestants and they adopted a theory of legitimacy. The theory had been presented in the year 1579 in Vindiciae Contra Tyrannos. According to the French Huguenots, God had given power to communities to resist tyrant rulers. Athusius was a staunch oppose of theocracy and thus, introduced the political theory of federation in order to voice against religious involvements of the state to promote the right religion (Boka 2006, 312). Authsius promoted secular agreements in order to promote alliances among different communities to safeguard and protect the right of everyone. On basis of alliances, Ludolph Hugo is considered to be the first individual, who gave the idea of double governments, which power distributed on basis of territory. Montesquieu also gave the idea of federalism. In his Spirit of Laws, which was introduced in 1748, he stated that a confederation can be proved to be beneficial for all small and large political components (Levi, 1990, 114). He believed that confederation provided security and protected the rights of smaller political units. Simultaneously, military protection can be given to larger states, which are in the confederation. Furthermore, he believed that a confederate republic allowed the distribution of power, which could not be misused. In return, the larger states get the power to maintain the security of the entire confederate republic. The confederate republic also allows each member units to check on another in order to see if the power is being misused by one member state on another. In terms of federalism, David Hume did not agree with Montesquieu on the grounds that the smaller size of the unit is better. Instead, he preferred a large democracy in order to maintain the principles and fundamentals of democracy.

During the eighteenth century, In Europe, confederation plans had been made by Abbe Charles de Saint-Pierre in order to "allow intervention in member units to quell rebellion and wars on non-members to force them to join an established confederation, and required unanimity for changes to the agreement" (Lindberg, 1963, 17). The idea of confederation has also been supported by Immanuel Kant in his work, On Perpetual Peace. According to him,

Perpetual Peace holds that the right of nations shall be based on a pacific federation among free states rather than a peace treaty or an international state: "This federation does not aim to acquire any power like that of a state, but merely to preserve and secure the freedom of each state in itself, along with that of the other confederated states, although this does not mean that they need to submit to public laws and to a coercive power which enforces them, as do men in a state of nature."( Boka 2006,322) .

The Constitution of United States in the year 1787 also laid down the fundamental and clear development in terms of federalism (Boka, 2006, 322). The main element in federation was that all the states and citizens were unified as in accordance to the constitution of U.S..

European Federalism

The concept of federalism emerged in the Europe as a result of opposition against tyrant rulers and dictators in order to create a unified Europe, with no racism and no borders. The idea of European federation is not new and it can be found during the eighteenth century. In the year 1941, Ventotene Manifesto "set out the "dividing line between progress and reaction" between those who regard a European federation to be the primary objective of the political struggle, and those who continue to think that the values of liberty, freedom and social justice can be pursued within the nation-state. It was for this reason that the Movimento Federalista Europeo was founded in Italy" (Loth, 1990, 178). After the end of World War II, the European nations sought for the unification of Europe and to develop a federation in order to maintain the security, rights and welfare of its citizens. During the fifties, significant attempts were made by Jean Monnet and Altiero Spinelli, in order to unify the European governments to achieve and attain political stability and unity. After the end of World War I, several attempts were made to achieve European federalism in order to combat the fascist movements that had emerged in Italy and Germany (Boka 2006,325) ."In Germany, from 1914, the group Neues Vaterland adopted the objective of promoting all initiatives likely to influence politically the countries of Europe, basing its ideas on the "civilized notion of peaceful competition and supranational unification" (Nugent, 2003, 189). In Britain, several groups and associations had amalgamated in order to strive for Union for Democratic Control.

Europe and the Threat of Fascism

Italian Fascism

Why the concept of federalism in Europe emerged in the first place? As mentioned earlier, after the end of World War I, fascist movements had emerged in the European region; specifically in Italy and Germany. These fascist movements had been successful in these two countries and thus, Italian Marxist Mussolini persuaded the Italian nation to be united on basis of race and it was essential for their survival. Furthermore, he had been successful in convincing that international revolution was not needed; there was only need for national revolution. The World War I gave him the chance to Galvanize patriotic energies and create the spirit of heroism and self-sacrifice necessary for the country's renewal. He thus joined the interventionist campaign, which urged Italy to enter the war. In 1914, as Italian leaders tried to decide whether to enter the war, Mussolini founded the newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia (The People of Italy) to encourage Italy to join the conflict (Nugent, 2003, 211).

Mussolini came into power in 1925 and from 1925 to 1931, he and his fascist regime had been successful in making Italy a state, which would be ruled by only one party. Italian fascism collapsed because of two significant events (Nugent, 2003, 225). Firstly, he attacked Ethiopia in an attempt to create an African Empire. This attack was condemned by the League of Nations and thus, sanctions were imposed on Italy, negatively influencing its economic and military resources. Furthermore, the attack on Spain by the Italian forces in the Spanish Civil War of 1936, undermined the claim that Italian military was strong and robust. Furthermore, influenced by his German counterpart, Mussolini also introduced anti-Jewish policies.

German Fascism

Another fascist movement had started in Germany. The aim of the National Socialist German Workers Party was to ensure that Germany is reborn and for this purpose, it was essential to promote nationalism. In order to achieve their goals, the Nazis restructured the entire structure of the government. Individual and democratic rights as well as organizations were abolished. "The Nazis promoted German culture, celebrated athleticism and youth, and tried to ensure that all Germans conformed physically and mentally to an Aryan ideal. But in order to achieve these goals, the Nazi regime repressed supposedly degenerate books and paintings, sterilized physically and mentally disabled people, and enslaved and murdered millions of people who were considered enemies of the Reich or "subhuman."(Nugent, 2004, 144)

Rise of European Federalism

Following the rise of Italian and German fascist movements, each and every country in the European region was at threat. Thus, the notion of European Federalism emerged in order to deal with the threat of fascism. The concept of federal Europe emerged after the end of World War I, when the League of Nations realized the importance of federal union.

The Early Period

Marx Waechter was British-German industrialist and he had contributed towards the development of federal Europe. He asserted that

"Europe is gradually losing its position in the world. My starting point is the absolute impossibility of Europe being able to hold its own against American competition." Japan, he wrote, "may soon become one of Europe's most formidable rivals in the field of trade and technology"(Dedman, 1996, 178).

According to him, the federal Europe was the only solution to abolish war and to bring economic prosperity and to maintain the security of European countries. In the year 1926, Pan Europa plan was devised and launched by Count Coudenhove-Kalergi. His proposal and movement of Pan Europa was responsible for influencing three essential noteworthy and momentous events: "the French Prime Minister Briand's plan for such a European union in 1930; Winston Churchill's speech in Zurich in 1946; the European Movement's support for a European Assembly in the 1940s" (Dinan, 2006, 71). The French Prime Minister had given his speech in the year 1929 in order to promote European Union in an attempt to stay united against fascist ideology of Nazis. Briand had been a strong supporter of Pan Europa movement. The Pan Europa movement had made a significant influence on Briand perception.

Winston Churchill and European Unity

European Unity had also been supported by Winston Churchill. He actively supported the French Prime Minister and asserted that

"The mass of Europe, once united, once federalised or partly federalised, once continentally self-conscious, would constitute an organism beyond compare ... We see nothing but good and hope in a richer, freer, more contented European commonalty"(Dinan, 2006, 102).

From 1942-1944, Churchill advocated the idea of Council of Europe in order to unify the entire European region. In 1945, he asserted that

I see no reason why, under the guardianship of a world organisation, there should not arise the United States of Europe, which will unify this Continent in a manner never known since the fall of the Roman Empire, and within which all its peoples may dwell together in prosperity, injustice and in peace (Horber, 2006, 478).

In the year 1946, Winston Churchill had been successful in delivering an address in Zurich. In his speech, he asserted that the European states must come together "to re create the European family or as much of it as we can, and provide it with a structure under which it can dwell in peace, in safety and in freedom We must build a kind of United States of Europe" (Milward, 1984, 52).Furthermore, Churchill also made attempts to form an alliance with Germany and France. "Big Three' leaders of the victorious coalition" reinvigorated the movement for European unity. It lead to the creation of the European Movement as a broad church, rallying all organisations, including the federalists, in support of European unity"(Stirk, 1996, 145). This attempt had been successful in promoting European federalism and unification.

Altiero Spinelli and His Efforts for Unified Europe

Altiero Spinelli is known for his efforts and contributions towards the unification of entire Europe. Although a communist, he is considered to be the early pioneers, who contributed towards the development of European Union. He played a crucial part in the initial years when attempts were being made to unify Europe. A staunch critic of Mussolini and his principles, Spinelli was sent to prison. "On the prison island, Spinelli came under the influence of two men: his fellow prisoner Ernesto Rossi and, through his writings, Rossi's friend, Professor Luigi Einaudi"(Levi, 1990, 204). Using the name of Junius, Professor Einaudi gave a critical analysis of the philosophies and principles of League of Nations and called for the creation of a federation, based on United States of America. His ideas and beliefs had influenced Spinelli significantly.

In Ventotene, Spinelli's life changed completely as he made up his mind to make attempts and endeavours for European Union. American revolutionaries such as Jay, Madison and Hamilton influenced Spinelli. During the time in prison, Spinelli wrote Ventotene Manifesto, in which he supported the unification of all the member states of Europe.

"A free and united Europe ... will immediately revive in full the historical process of the struggle against social inequalities and privileges. All the old conservative structures which hindered this process will have collapsed or will be in a state of collapse... In order to respond to our needs, the European revolution must be socialist..."(Dinan, 2006, 171).

Furthermore, he believed that the unification of Europe would give benefits to each and every member, He asserted that

"The multiple problems which poison international life on the continent have proved to be insoluble: tracing boundaries through areas inhabited by mixed populations, defence of minorities, seaports for landlocked countries, the Balkan question, the Irish problem, and so on. All matters which should find easy solutions in the European federation" (Horber, 2006, 499)

Furthermore, he believed that the European Union would have on single army in order to promote military security of each and every member state and at the same time, it would remove the economic and unlimited political power of totalitarian and nationalist regimes. Furthermore, he believed that the European federalism "would have the fundamental principles of "federation, socialisation of monopolies and redistribution of wealth.." After the end of World War II, Spinelli started a movement for Federalista Europeo. "By 1947 the MFE claimed 15,000 members, mainly in the North where Spinelli was operating. The MFE persuaded all the Italian parties, except the Communist PCI, to include federalism in their programmes" (Boka 2006, 324).