Fgm Female Genital Mutilation Female

FGM

Female Genital Mutilation

Female genital mutilation: a sociological perspective

A common view of female general mutilation known as FGM or 'genital modification' refers to "…permanent or temporary changes to human genitals" (Genital Mutilation). More specifically, female genital mutilation is a cultural practice that involves the removal of portions of a young women's genitals in order to ensure that she conforms to the social and cultural norms relating to gender in that society. The World Health Organization defines female general mutilation as follows: "Female genital mutilation comprises all procedures that involve partial or total removal of female external genitalia and/or injury to the female genital organs for cultural or any other non-therapeutic reasons" (Lee). The practice is also known as female circumcision (FC) or female genital cutting ( Lee) The suffering caused by this process in its various forms is also well documented in the literature. As one researcher notes; "It is an excruciating procedure in some cases done by ill trained practitioners in sub-medical conditions" (Dzhantam, 2005).

Female genital mutilation is known to occur in various regions and countries, especially in northern African countries. One of the most dangerous procedures associated with this practise is Infibulation or Pharaonic Circumcision, which is commonly found in Sudan, Somalia, Northern Kenya, parts of Ethiopia an as well as in West Africa and in parts of Mali (Dzhantam, 2005).

FGM is also widely associated with cultural mores and social intentions, such as the reduction of sexual desire, which is also linked to patriarchal norms and values in certain societies. In some cultures it is considered a necessary process in order to"… maintain a girl's good reputation for marriage" ( Lee). Defenders of forms of female genital circumcision refer to the cultural view that uncircumcised girls are considered in these societies to be unclean and promiscuous, which has obvious negative social and cultural connotations.

However, at the same time there are a plethora of recent reports that emphasize the serious and even life-threatening consequences of FGM. This can range from haemorrhage and shock to infections, scarring which obstructs normal childbirth and infertility due to infections ( Hosken). Furthermore, "…the highest childbirth mortality is recorded in areas where FGM is practiced" (Hosken)

These negative medical as well as social consequences of FGM have led to a strong reaction from many human rights and other international bodies. For example, as a result of pressure from African women's organizations, the procedure of female of circumcision has been banned in fourteen countries that previously practised this procedure (Lee).

Despite world censure and condemnation, female genital mutilation continues to be practised in many regions and countries. This leads to the central question in this paper; namely, what is the motivating force in terms of social norms and mores that allows this practice to continue, when it is obviously an infringement of human rights and has also been shown to be medically dangerous to the individual girl or women? In other words, how do we understand this practice from a sociological and cultural point-of-view?

2. The sociological perspective

As one report on this subject states, the number of mutilated women and girls in Africa and the Middle East is increasing steadily and "… internationally financed population, health and safe motherhood programs & #8230;have failed to implement effective preventive education" (Hosken). The issue that arises from a sociological standpoint is, what are the sociological motivations and structural aspects that tend to encourage a continuation of the practice of female genitalia mutilation?

One of the modern sociological perspectives on FGM is related to an analysis of gender stratification and social hierarchy in certain societies. From this stance one can analyze female genital mutilation in terms of the patriarchal and gender-based structure of these societies. Many studies attest to the severe gender disparities in the hierarchical structure of the societies in question.

A gender analysis also relates the apparent ignorance about the effects of FGM to male views and to extreme male -- centric views in the cultures. As one study notes,

It is clear that in most cultures where FGM occurs there are unrealistic beliefs about women and about the physical anatomy. Some fear that unless the female genitals are removed, they will continue to grow, becoming unsightly and awkward. Some think that female genitals are unclean, even poisonous and could cause death if touched by a man or a baby if not removed

( Horsfal, 2000).

Many ascribe the above unrealistic assessment to male ignorance, which is exacerbated by the male hierarchical structure of the society. In essence, many commentators are of the opinion that the continued practice of female genital mutilation is a result of the desire of men in the society to have control of women's sexuality ( Horsfal, 2000). This relates to the view that the structure and the control of gender conformity in these societies leads to extreme forms of female subjugation and even to the relegation of women to a 'slave class'. This subjugation is socially enforced and extended through the practice of female genital mutilation. This view is expressed in one study as follows:

…husbands demand that their wives be virgins at marriage and remain sexually faithful thereafter. The point of genital mutilation is to eliminate sexual sensation thereby making the girl less likely to violate sexual mores. In the process she becomes more desirable to men"

(Mugenzi, 1998. p.19).

This interpretation of FGM is also supported by many sociologists. Ahlberg et al. (2000) state that, "…female circumcision is to do with how women's bodies and sexuality are viewed and Controlled " (Ahlberg et al. 2000, p.35). From this perspective the practice of FGM is related to the socially constructed meaning of the sexual differences between women and men and the power structure in the society, which tends to favor the male. From a theoretical perspective this also refers to Foucault's view which "…stresses that societies control sexuality through construction of a dichotomised or gendered sexuality with the female sexuality being subordinate" (Ahlberg et al. 2000, p.35)

There are however other aspects that have to be taken into account in a comprehensikve sociological analysis of FGM. As the study by Ahlberg et al. states, female circumcision persists even though there is increasing evidence of the psychological and physical harm that women experience as a result of the practice. Ahlberg also emphasizes the fact that, "It persists also within contexts of substantial efforts to prevent it & #8230;."(Ahlberg et al., 2000. p.37) This leads to the sociological view that gender roles and behavior patterns become 'normalized' or accepted by the members of the society. This normalization process is one that is socialized at a very early age and the devaluation of women then becomes accepted by the society as socially normal and permissible (Ahlberg et al. 2000). This is a possible sociological explanation of why practices like female circumcision are still practiced by many cultures today.

The issue of cultural relativity is one that is important to consider. The forces of cultural tradition and established views about gender are often innate in the culture and are retained in the face of criticism and logic. Many cultures still believe that aspects such as female circumcision are important and play an integral and even vital role in the structure and functioning of the community. In terms of the accepted dynamics of the society these traditions are difficult to eradicate (Dzhantam, 2005).

This is also complicated by the complex nature of social structures, such as kinship and marriage. For example, in many traditional societies, social position and identity are linked to lineage though fathers and "… female circumcision helps to reduce the uncertainty surrounding parenthood by discouraging or preventing young women from having any sexual activity outside of marriage" (Dzhantam, 2005). This also refers to related factors, such as prearranged marriages and the importance of virginity in the society as it relates to social acceptability ( Dzhantam, 2005).

Therefore, the problem of female genital mutilation has also to be considered from a cultural relativist point-of-view. For instance, factors such as the cultural view of aesthetics had to be taken into account. This refers to views like in some societies that "…female anatomy in its natural state is considered ugly, and uncircumcised women are usually deemed unmarriageable " (White).

However the cultural relativist view must also be considered from other perspectives. Critics also note that western ethnocentric perspectives of this phenomenon may in themselves be biased towards the privileging of certain social norms and values. In her study White refers to the fact that in the West women are also ' mutilated' and abused in a different but equally negative way. "Western society could be guilty of placing equally barbaric aesthetic standards on women. While other cultures might prefer robust, curvy body shapes, our society often encourages dangerous states of thinness" ( White). In other words, the ideal body image or type that is projected by the media in Western society is in fact unattainable by most women and often leads to psychological trauma and negative health issues such as Anorexia Nervosa, which can be compared to the consequence of female genital mutilation.