Frederick Douglass: life, work, and legacy

Frederick Douglas

Theories differ on how people learn to read and write. The connection between reading and writing is one of the most debated topics in literary circles. However, the debate over this topic pales to the debate over the relationship between culture and literacy. Major theorists are divided into two groups of thought on this topic. The first argues that literacy is necessary for the advancement of culture and society. The other argues that literacy is independent of society and that they have little influence on each other.

By examining the writings of Frederick Douglas, a slave who learned to read and write, one can examine the connection between literacy and culture. Those that are literate serve as interpreters for those that are not and therefore become valuable public servants for their cultural group. This research will demonstrate how literacy has been used to separate and subjugate certain social classes throughout the history of America. This study will examine major theories of literacy using the lens of subjugation of certain social classes to support the thesis that literacy can be used as a tool to separate and subjugate lower social classes of society.

Douglas and the Slave's Perspective

Frederick Douglas's writing is more than simply another writing to add to the annals of the history of slavery in America. It stands as a testimony to the experience of being a slave and provides insight into many aspects of black America that have been suppressed by society. Douglas's work is a culturally relevant way of writing history that provides us with a deeper understanding of what it meant to be a slave in early America.

Deborah Brandt considers reading and writing to be two different activities. According to her theories, one does not necessarily inspire a person to pursue the other. Reading does not necessarily lead to a desire to learn to write. Brandt found that reading held higher prestige than writing and was considered more important (Brandt, p. 478). In the case of Douglas, reading came first, then writing. His narrative supports Brandt's theory, as reading proved a much more important skill for Douglas then writing.

It was reading that opened Douglas's eyes to the true state of the predicament of himself and that of other slaves. The world looked grim through the eyes of the press. Through reading, he became aware of the disdain that white society held for the slave. Reading this Anglo-centric viewpoint produced a sense of hopelessness in Douglas. He states, "It opened my eyes to the horrible pit, but to no ladder upon which to get out. In moments of agony," (Douglas, par. 6). Douglas began to envy the other slaves who could not read, because they had not idea of their horrible condition.

Those that could not read and did not know the true nature of their existence could go about their daily lives and could attain a sense of happiness. However, Douglas was denied that happiness when he began to read. It sparked anger in him and he developed a rage and a yearning desire for the true freedom of which he read, but knew that he could not attain. The inability to read and understand the nature of their existence was a means to keep them happy servants, with no desire for anything else. If they did not know what was out in the world, they would not want it for themselves and could forever remain happy indentured servants of the dominant society.

The black man of the old South did not know how their white masters spoke of them. They did not know that they were being treated only as well as the animals. Douglas recalls that the mistress of the house tried to teach him to read at first, but was severely chastised for doing so by the plantation master. She soon became adamant about taking away any means for Douglas to read. She snatched the newspaper from his hands if he was caught reading it. From Douglas' perspective, she had fallen under the supremacist's spell, but there may have been other reasons for her outward disdain of his efforts to learn to read. She may have been in fear of societal repercussions, or from reprisals from her husband. She may have inwardly wanted him to learn to read, but was under societal obligation to show outward hostility towards the idea.

Social isolation is necessary if one culture wishes to dominate another. The inability to read and write in the native language leads to isolation and loneliness. Weinstein-Shr studies Hmong refugees and found that the inability to read and write English created severe social isolation (Solomon). In some cases, the tutor adds a dimension of friendship and social ties, in addition to the lessons (Solomon). Weinstein-Shr considers the relationships built through tutoring relationships to be the most important aspect of language acquisition programs (Solomon).

This was found to be the case with Douglas as well. He found companionship when the mistress of the household attempted to teach him to read. He had a feeling of loss and anger when he could no longer experience that bond with her. Douglas stated that when she was teaching him to read, she treated him as a human being. After the lessons stopped, she no longer treated him like a fellow human, but as property to be controlled and managed. The change in attitude was marked by cessation of the reading lessons.

According to Weinstein-Shr, language is a major barrier to gaining access to needed services and help that is needed (Solomon). It as not until Douglas learned to read that he heard about abolitionists. Reading about the abolitionists started Douglas down the road to developing a plan to escape. Literacy gave Douglas the desire and the means to bring about his own freedom.

The Hmong refugees studied by Weinstein-Shr have many similarities to African-Americans in the 1800s. They did not have a written language until white contact and largely consisted of tribal groups (Solomon). They were culturally isolated in many ways. Their traditions consisted of oral traditions and they relied on passing on information by word of mouth. When Douglas learned to read, he gained access to the mass media of the time. He realized what a powerful tool the written word could be, as compared to the tediousness and unreliability of passing on information through traditional channels.

Through using the written word, Douglas found that messages could be transferred more quickly. One could be exposed to many differing viewpoints and ideas when one learned to read. This could be said for any immigrant group that came to America. They brought with them their own unique cultural identity. Their culture remained relatively intact, as long as they lived in small communities with other immigrants of a similar background. However, when they began to read the native language, it opened up a new world of viewpoints and ideas. In this manner, literacy represents a blending of cultures and ideas through exposure.

Akinnaso defines individual consciousness as an integration of thoughts and behaviors (Akinnaso, p. 138). Consciousness is not only the internal atmosphere of the individual, but embodies how they represent their internal world through their actions. Akinnaso defines literacy as a way of, "perceiving, thinking, speaking, evaluating, and interacting that characterize a group so individuals and set them apart from others, " (Akinnaso, 139). He summarizes his arguments be arguing that one should refrain from making universal generalizations about literacy and the individual's perceived ignorance. Literacy can have deeply rooted cultural significance and one must look beyond their own culture in a non-judgmental way in order to understand them (Akinnaso, p.155).

Akinnaso's theories define the world of Douglas and the many other immigrant groups that were denied literacy as a form of social subjugation and isolation. Slaves were viewed ignorant and inferior to the white man. Their inability to read and write was often cited as "proof" that they were less than civilized human beings. It gave slavers a means to justify their actions in the face of society. It would have been considered an atrocity to treat a civilized human being, capable of reading and writing, in the manner in which slaves were treated. The same could be said of Native Americans, Irish Immigrants, or Chinese immigrants. Denial of the right to learn to read and write provided America with the labor force that it needed to become industrialized.

The ability to read and write in the native language are considered essential elements in the dawning of the industrial age. Douglas developed the desire to be free through reading. His first exposure to writing was through manual labor. He had to learn to write to a minimal degree in order to perform his job in the shipyard. One could use instances such as this to support the importance of literacy to the coming of the industrial age.

Harvey Graff tends to agree more with Brandt, in that industrialization, whether they live in a rural or urban population, and their access to education have a significant impact on the path that they will take in their lives (Cattau). Graff Asserts that literacy played a less significant role in the industrialization of American than was one thought. He argues that training people to read and write was not enough. Literacy alone was not enough to advance the industrialized nation (Cattau).

Douglas did not need to know how to read to perform his job in the shipyard. He only needed to know how to write four letters. He did not need to how to read and write proficiently. The workforce may have needed little bits of knowledge to perform their jobs, but this is different from being able to read and write fluently, which supports Graff's ideas on the importance of reading and writing to the industrial age. It relied more on the availability of a workforce, rather than the need for a literate workforce. The only ones that needed to learn to read and write were the managers and business owners. Literacy was not necessary for the average laborer.

Scribner and Cole analyzed the affects of three literacies, English schooling, Quran studies, and traditional Via script on various cognitive skills (Scribner and Cole, 1981). This study found that each of these literacy skills affected a different type of cognitive skill. One of the most significant findings of Scribner and Cole's work is that school learning is not dependent on the ability to read and write (Scribner and Cole, 1981). Most of the slaves in Douglas's time were unable to read and write, a privilege that had been intentionally denied them. However, they still had the ability to learn many tasks that were complicated and required great cognitive skill. The labor force of the 1800s was able to perform their job without the ability to read and write. Another example is the number of non-English speaking Chinese who build the rail system. They did not need to know how to read and write to do their job / Yet, collectively they built the infrastructure that gave America the edge.

Brandt felt that written language led to social and cognitive literacies. However, Akinnaso felt that culture could have a significant impact on textual literacy. The difference in these two opposing views is the direction of the relationship between culture and literacy. Where Brandt believes that literacy builds culture, Akinnaso believes that culture builds literacy. Brandt adheres to the sociohistorical explanation of literacy where oral and literate traditions are blended. Akinnaso did not feel that these traditions were always blended, but felt that culture was sometimes separate from literacy.

Regardless of one's position of the interconnection between culture and literacy, looking into the world of Douglas makes some significant points. Douglas would never separate himself from the African traditions and the slave culture that were his world. However, when he learned to read, he entered the world of the slave masters. He became exposed to a side of white culture that had been hidden from him when he was an illiterate slave. Illiteracy created cultural and social isolation between slaves and whites. One could agree with Brandt in that the ability to read and write led to social and cognitive literacies. Through learning to read, Douglas opened his mind to another culture that existed within a society. He learned about the abolitionists and about the ideals that Anglo-centric slavers held about Blacks. Through reading, Douglas gained a new level of social awareness. The culture of the slave, and many other ethnic groups, existed without literacy. Cultural literacy was gained through the act of reading, but literacy was not necessary for the existence of a certain culture.

One could also find support in Douglas' story for Akinnaso's theories as well. Akinnaso believed that culture built literacy, but did not necessarily believe that oral and literate traditions were blended. In Douglas' writing, one can see elements of black culture and the attitudes held by slaves, particularly the hopelessness and despair. However, elements of African oral tradition are absent in his writing. Douglas mimics the writing of white authors, which served as his only example from which to learn. Douglas did not have access to black writings, therefore his tone and style are more like that of whites at the time. The African dialect and oral traditions are absent, but slave attitudes and ideas are still intact. The writings of Douglas are formal in tone, with long sentences and a flowing style.

Miriam Sved debates the role of creative writing and its importance in academic circles. One of the most hotly debated topics is the relevance of art to politics and social forces that are alive in society, arguing against the stifling of creative and expressive forces (Sved). The account of Douglas's journey to beat the system and to learn to read justify this position. The ability to read, and perhaps write, provided the means for the slave to express themselves. They had a means to communicate their ideas and their plight. Literacy gave slaves the ability to transcend their own situation and to strive to achieve something higher. Douglas's essay supports Sved's argument that stifling creativity is a form of social repression.

Defining the Strategies that Douglas used to read and Write

Frederick Douglas went against ideals of society that forbid blacks and other ethnic groups from learning to read and write. His master and mistress violently opposed his desire to read and write. His first efforts to read were through a nurturing tutoring relationship. However, after this opportunity was violently taken away from him, he had to resort to secrecy. He had to sneak a glance at the newspaper whenever he could, learning what little he know to extrapolate meanings. Douglas had to use extreme cunning to learn to read. He had to resort to bribes, such as bribing schoolboys with bread. He had to resort to trickery, such as taunting the school boys so that they had to "prove" to him what they knew.

He learned to read through repetition and practice. His first efforts were through memorization of the alphabet. Douglas does not go into detail about how he was taught the alphabet, but extrapolating what we know about learning during that time, it was likely with rote memorization. Douglas gives clues as to some of the methods that he used to learn to read and write, even though he does not explicitly state them.

Once Douglas mastered the alphabet, some rudimentary word recognition skills, and the alphabet through rote teaching, he then could use these skills to sort out the context of words that he did not know. Douglas obtained a book and bribed school boys to sneak in quick lessons whenever he could. Douglas had to learn to pick up little bits and pieces of information and then practice until his next chance to learn. Practice was his key tool in learning to read. Douglas learned to write in much the same manner, he had to learn to write four letters in order to perform his job at the shipyard. He learned to write these first four letters through repetition and practice. From there he learned by copying the writing of another, practicing until he got it right. Practice and repetition were the keys to learning to read and write. Douglas' journey teaches us the value of repetition and practice in the ability to read and write.

The most relevant point about Douglas's ability to read and write, in the context of literacy theories, is that both the ability to read and the ability to write requires the intervention of someone else. Douglas had to have a tutor to teach him the alphabet. The first tutoring relationship was a formal arrangement between the mistress and him. The second tutor was informal, his boss at the shipyard. One would not normally consider the boss at the shipyard to be a tutor, but he had to teach Douglas to write the four letters before he could do his job. Douglas had to have someone start him out, even though he learned on his own after that.

The necessity of this relationship is often underestimated in the learning environment, but it stresses the social element in the ability to learn to read and write. This is the same element present when a mother reads the first book to her child and teaches the child that reading is a positive social experience. The child associates reading with cuddling and social interaction. Douglas had much the same social experience with his first tutor. They would spend time together interacting in a positive manner. When she was tutoring him, she treated him as human. When the tutoring stopped, so did the humanity of their relationship. The relationship degraded when the tutoring ceased. This supports the existence of a social aspect to literacy.

Once the groundwork was laid, Douglas had to learn much on his own. He learned to read the dictionary, which gave him an array of words that he could use. He gained fluency through practice. There are many formal elements of literacy, such as word order or sentence structure that were not taught to Douglas in a formal manner.

White children had the privilege of going to school and learning these elements in a formal, structured setting. However, Douglas was able to learn these same elements without the aid of formal education. He unconsciously integrated many of these elements through reading and listening to speech patterns. Douglas learned many of these elements much in the same manner that a baby learns its first language, by listening and then mimicking the speech. Douglas became fluent in his writing ability through reading the works of others and by copying the handwritten letters of his master. In this manner, he mimicked the patterns of his master and learned to write fluently in the new language.