Freemasons Contributions to Today\'s Society

Freemasons Contributions to Today's Society

Depending on perspective, Freemasons have either been a widely misunderstood group of people who have made invaluable contributions to American society, or a group of people whose primary goal is to destroy Christianity, and, perhaps, bring about Armageddon. There is evidence to support the idea that Freemasons were an invaluable part of the beginning of America; after all, army leader and first President George Washington was a Freemason. In contrast, there is no evidence to support the idea that the Freemasons are a secret-society whose goal is to destroy Christianity. However, the fact that many of the Founding Fathers were Freemasons does not save the group from suspicion. One must recall that the Founding Fathers all came from the upper-class and that the majority of them benefited from a class-based system, which included slavery. Placed against such a background, it is no surprise that some of the criticisms levied at the Freemasons are that it is an elitist organization, whose secret operations are actually contrary to the modern American standard of fairness and equality. The problem with such an assertion is that it is impossible to prove; Freemasons' contributions in today's society are shrouded in mystery and conspiracy, making it impossible to determine their goals or their total impact on society.

History of the Freemasons

Because the freemasons are a secret society, it can be difficult to put together a history of the Freemasons. Much of the information available about their history is speculative, since there was no official beginning to the organization. Moreover, much of the information about their history contradicts itself. Therefore, any discussion of the history of the Freemasons must acknowledge that what is known about that history is speculative. According to the early 20th century Mason Fred Crowe, the Freemasons' history is undoubtedly a mix of trade guild and mysticism. On the one hand, Freemasons descended from the operative guilds of Rome and Medieval Europe (Crowe, 2003). However, there is an undeniably mystical bent to Freemasonry, which is not explained by simple membership in a trade guild. Crowe traces that mysticism back to "Rosicrucianism and kindred orders, which are in their turn descended from the 'mysteries' which formed the secret cults of all the older religions" (Crowe, 2003, p.7).

One of the more enduring legends about the origin of the Freemasons is linked to King Solomon:

According to some Masonic scholars, the Freemasons trace their roots to the building of King Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem in 967 B.C., an event which was described in the biblical Book of Kings. In the story, the builders of the temple were the original stonemasons, and the forefathers of today's Freemasons. The legend centers on the master builder -- a man named Hiram Abiff -- who claimed to know the secret of the temple. One day, three men kidnapped Abiff and threatened to kill him if he didn't reveal that secret. When he refused to talk, Abiff was murdered. After learning of the killing, King Solomon ordered a group of Masons to search for Abiff's body and bring back the secret of the temple. The men were unsuccessful, so the King established a new Masonic secret. His secret is believed to be the word "Mahabone," meaning "the Grand Lodge door opened," which is now the password used to enter the third degree of Masonry (Watson, 2009).

To date, no one has been able to prove that the Freemasons were involved with King Solomon or had anything to do with the building of his temple. In fact, there is little documentation to prove that the modern Freemasons can be linked to any events of the 10th century. However, there is also no evidence to disprove the connection between Freemasons and King Solomon. After all, little contemporaneous documentation has survived from that time period, making it possible for the Masons to have been involved with the building of the temple without leaving any proof of such involvement.

Moreover, in addition to being linked to King Solomon, and, through him, to Judaism, the Freemasons are also anecdotally linked to Christianity. Though not all people agree on the connection, the Freemasons have repeatedly been linked to the Knights Templar. The Knights Templar were an actual order of knights, composed of monks "who took up arms in 1118 a.D. In order to protect Christian pilgrims traveling from Jaffa (a port city in Israel) to Jerusalem" (Watson, 2009). According to legend, the Knights Templar discovered a secret treasure, and King Philip IV of France had them arrested and imprisoned. The theory is that, after being released, some of the Knights Templar may have formed a group that evolved into the Freemasons (Watson, 2009). An additional aspect of that theory is that the Freemasons continue to be the guardians of the treasure found by the Knights Templar, with much speculation surrounding the amount, and even the nature, of that treasure.

While the above origination accounts may be nothing more than legend, according to the Grand Lodge of North Carolina, "There are those who find evidences of Freemasonry dating back to the Roman Empire. Others mark its beginning in ancient Egypt" (How it began, 1998). While the more ancient origins of freemasonry are obscure, what is known is that:

The name Freemason appeared as early as 1212 in connection with the master builders who traveled about Europe erecting the wonderful churches and cathedrals, many of which still stand and which attest to the truly amazing building arts of the craftsmen in that early age. These builders were called Freemasons because they were a privileged class, not subject to servitude or taxes, and free to travel about when many were in bondage (How it began, 1998).

Therefore, because the Freemasons enjoyed special privileges, they desired to limit their ranks to a small number, so that it would be ensured that they would continue to have those privileges. However, they were equally desirous that their trade continue, and that the secrets of their craft, which had made it possible to build such beautiful and enduring buildings, be passed on through the generations. Therefore, the Freemasons:

Formed themselves into lodges in which their secrets might be taught and preserved. They were naturally most selective of those making application to join their lodges, determined that the secrets of their art should be handed down only to those morally and otherwise fit to receive and perpetuate them. To qualify, an applicant had to be of good reputation, he could have no physical impairment, he had to be recommended by members of the craft, and he could be neither too old nor too young to learn and perform the tasks he sought to undertake (How it began, 1998).

While many people sought to become Freemasons, relatively few were chosen, making the group elite. Furthermore, because the group initiated as a way to transmit trade secrets, from its inception, it was a group shrouded in mystery and secrecy. At some point in time, the group moved away from a way to transmit building secrets from generation to generation and into a more fraternal organization. This transition reflects a change in the labeling of the Masons, from operative to speculative members in the order. There are varying estimates about when the transition was complete, but it seems clear that by the 17th century, the transition was in full swing, if not already completed.

By the end of the 17th century, there were established lodges throughout Britain, and, it appears through much of Europe, although there is little documentary evidence of some of those lodges. What is clear is that "there is abundant proof of the existence of many English Lodges before a Grand Lodge was formed, and it is quite possible that some of these were of high antiquity" (Crowe, 2003, p.10). The Freemasons were also clearly in existence in Ireland and Scotland by the time of the late 17th century, with evidence that they were well-established fraternal orders by that point in time. In 1717, members of at least four Lodges in London "formed the first Grand Lodge, from which every other Grand Masonic Lodge in the world is directly or indirectly descended, and elected Mr. Anthony Sayer, Grand Master" (Crowe, 2003, p.11). By 1724, the original Grand Lodge was giving out permission to start other Grand Lodges at different places in England. For approximately 100 years there was some competition between Lodges, wherein the members were attempting to establish some type of superiority and/or seniority. Bu 1813, the United Grand Lodge was well-established as the primary Grand Lodge in Freemasonry (Crowe, 2003, p.14).

As the Freemasons transitioned from a trade guild into a fraternal organization, they came to be associated with a liberal philosophy. "They favored religious tolerance over the strict dictates of the Catholic Church, and they enjoyed intellectual discourse with their brothers" (Watson, 2009). It was during this time that the Freemasons became a man's club; while the group had previously admitted women, it began to exclude them from membership in the 1700s. In addition, both governments and churches began to grow suspicious of the group, probably because of the "organization's secrecy and liberal religious beliefs" (Watson, 2009). As a result, Portugal and France banned Freemasonry; in fact, it was a capital offense to be a Freemason in Portugal (Watson, 2009). Moreover, "Pope Clement XII forbade Catholics from becoming Freemasons on penalty of excommunication" (Watson, 2009). Feeling pressure in Europe, many Freemasons decided to flee the Old World and travel to the European colonies scattered throughout the world, most notably, America.

Influence on America

Anyone with even a rudimentary knowledge of the Freemasons and American history understands that, whatever resistance the Freemasons met with in Europe was not to be found in America. The Freemasons set up lodges in Boston and Philadelphia, and some of the founding fathers, including Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. More importantly, the Freemasons are reported to have played a crucial role in the American Revolution:

A story exists that Freemasons were among the dozens of men who, dressed as Native Americans, boarded three British ships in Boston Harbor on December 16, 1773 and dumped hundreds of crates of tea into the water, setting off the American Revolution. Whether Freemasons actually were involved in the Boston Tea Party is a matter of some speculation, but there is no doubt that they were among the signers of both the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution (Watson, 2009).

The American Revolution led to another type of independence; the American Freemason Lodges reorganized by state. Though there was never a central Masonic authority in the United States, the lodges recognized each other. Because more than one type of Masonry had come to the colonies, it comes as no surprise that more than one type of Masonry evolved in the United States. Those two types include the Scottish Rite, which follows English traditions, and the York Rite, which follows French traditions (Watson, 2009). In addition, in America, special Freemason lodges were developed for African-American men. American lodges are also notable for their sister auxiliary groups, which exist to promote female participation in Freemason tradition, without having to induct women in the lodges, themselves.

In fact, by the 1820s, it seemed that Freemasonry and America were forging a special relationship. First, many of the founding fathers, including a full one-third of the signers of the Constitution, were Freemasons (Tolson, 2005). In addition, the Freemasons shared many of the ideals that were coming to be recognized as American ideals. "American republican values looked like Masonic values writ large: honorable civic-mindedness, a high regard for learning and progress, and what might be called a broad and tolerant religiosity" (Tolson, 2005). In fact, some conspiracy theorists point to Masonic involvement in the Revolution and in beginning the nation as evidence of a Masonic conspiracy. While it may not be a conspiracy, it is simply impossible to ignore the fact that the Freemasons were intimately involved in the establishment of modern-day America.

Not only did Freemasonry held shape the face of America, but America helped change the face of Freemasonry. Perhaps the most notable difference in American Freemasonry was the development of the Shriners. Formally known as "The Ancient Arabic Order of Nobles of the Mystic Shrine," the Shriners have become an intrinsic part of American Freemasonry (Watson, 2009). Most Americans are familiar with Shriners, due to their fund-raising circuses, involvement in children's charities, charitable hospitals for sick children, fun attitudes, and signature red fezzes. However, what many people may not realize is that Shriners are linked to Masonry. "To become a Shriner, a man must first rise to the Third Degree (Master Mason) in the Blue Lodge" (Watson, 2009). Therefore, though all Masons may not be Shriners, all Shriners are Masons.

While it is impossible to list all of the prominent Americans who have been Freemasons, a brief overview of the list reveals that successful people in all areas of American life have been members of the fraternity. Freemason Presidents include George Washington, Theodore Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, and Ronald Reagan. Freemason patriots include Benjamin Franklin and Paul Revere. Freemason businessmen include automobile manufacturers Henry Ford, Walter P. Chrysler, Ransom E. Olds; James C. Penney, David Sarnoff, Louis B. Meyer, and Darryl f. Zanuck. Famous Freemason entertainers include W.C. Fields, Douglas Fairbanks, Sr., Clark Gable, Oliver Hardy, John Wayne, John Philip Sousa, Irving Berlin, George M. Cohen, and Harry Houdini. Freemasons have also been on the cutting edge of exploration; both the aviator Charles Lindbergh and the astronaut John Glenn were Freemasons (Watson, 2009).

Conspiracy theories

As might be expected with any large and successful group, there are many conspiracy theories surrounding the Freemasons. These conspiracy theories probably have their origin in the fact that the Freemason's liberal religious attitudes threatened the established political and religious powers in 17th and 18th century Europe. Given that the early Freemasons did encourage liberal discussions about religious freedom, allegations that they were anti-religion, especially Catholicism, which, at that time, did not tolerate questioning of the faith. In addition, while the Freemasons "claim to be no more religious than any Rotary Club or other social organization, their rituals do have strong spiritual overtones" (Watson, 2009). These overtones have made it easy for people to associate the Freemasons with a wide variety of conspiracies.

Clint Jhonson has linked Freemasonry with the practice of the occult sciences. It is a confirmed aspect of Freemasonry that Freemasons acknowledge a supreme being, whom they refer to as the architect. "This architect is considered as the creator of the entire world and the freemasons are used to observe his presence and actions on a daily basis" (Jhonson, 2007). However, rather than seeing the supreme architect as a generic substitute for the name of an all-powerful monotheistic God, some conspiracy theorists have suggested that Satan is the force behind the Freemasons. While the allegations that Satan is behind the Freemasons may be completely unbelievable based on one's own religious orientation, the conspiracy theorists are persuasive when they discuss how such a conspiracy would work. For example, they believe that "the occult world already controls all the finances that are to be found in the modern world" (Jhonson, 2007). When one considers that the overwhelming majority of the world's resources are controlled by less than one percent of the world's population, those assertions of a conspiracy seem less far-fetched and much easier to believe. In addition, because of the control that money provides people, financial control would permit Freemasons to perpetuate their conspiracies. According to Jhonson:

Even the law enforcement agencies are likely to be controlled by the occult world; the media is also believed to be controlled by freemasonry because all the vital systems that are to be found in the whole world belong to some leading families. These families own their corporations in order to control the worldwide finances; for instance, the banks are infiltrated with all the conspiracy theories that are used in order to take care of everybody's money. The entire inflation, the interest rates and every type of economy management are likely to depend on the occult sciences that are governing the entire world. The entire economy is likely to be manipulated by the occult theories that are able to infiltrate in the world monetary system because this system is vital when it comes to the good functioning of the world (2007).

In addition, two widely successful elements of pop culture have focused on Masonic conspiracies in their plotlines. These two works are the Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown and the movie National Treasure. In the Da Vinci Code, Dan Brown links the Knights Templar to a conspiracy to hide the fact that Mary Magdalene and Jesus actually had a child together, and that Jesus' has a modern-day descendant. Because of the link between the Knights Templar and Freemasonry, it has been suggested that the Masons play a role in this conspiracy. There is no evidence to support the idea that Mary Magdalene and Christ ever married, much less evidence to suggest that their marriage produced a child and that the Knights Templar or the Freemasons have been involved hiding that descendant (Lovgren, 2004). However, there is also no evidence to disprove such involvement, and the very secrecy of the organization only serves to increase speculation that they exist in order to promote a secret purpose.

In National Treasure, the Freemasons are portrayed in a very positive manner. Building on the link between the Knights Templar and the Freemasons, the movie suggests that the Freemasons brought the hidden treasure to the United States and hid clues to the treasure's whereabouts in famous American landmarks (Lovgren, 2004). This suggests a conspiracy among the country's founding fathers, and the movie backs up those allegations with reputed evidence that the founding fathers used Masonic symbols in early American creations. These examples include, among others, the Great Seal, the design of Washington, D.C., and the dollar bill.

One of the conspiracy theories surrounding the Freemasons is that they are members of the secret society known as the Illuminati. This is due to the fact that Bavarian Freemasons were associated with the Illuminati:

Founded by German professor Adam Weishaupt during the 1700s, the Illuminati believed that both religions and governments were corrupt. They wanted to abolish both institutions to create a New World Order. To accomplish this mission, Weishaupt joined up with the Freemasons in Bavaria. Although the two groups shared liberal religious views, the Freemasons did not support Weishaupt's radical plot. Eventually, the Bavarian government forced the Illuminati to disband, but members reportedly carried on as part of other organizations, and some believe they continue to pursue their mission with the Freemasons today (Watson, 2009).

In fact, the idea that the Freemasons want to create a New World Order may be one of the most pervasive conspiracy theories about the Freemasons. As seen, it is certainly linked to the truth, since a Masonic Lodge was intimately involved in the foundation of the Illuminati. While there is no proof of a modern-day connection, it seems reasonable to believe that such an organization might have lingering members, and, further, that it would be easy for such a society to exist within a fraternity that is already shrouded in secrecy and ritual.

The Freemasons have been implicated in modern-day conspiracy theories as well as historical ones. It must be remembered that there is some truth to some of the conspiracy theories. For example, both the French and American Revolutions were allegedly inspired or caused by the Freemasons (Watson, 2009). While it would be overreaching to suggest that the Freemasons were solely responsible for those revolutions, the reality is that the leaders in those revolutions were exactly the same type of free-thinking person who would naturally be drawn to an organization like the Freemasons. Moreover, it cannot be ignored that several key figures in the American Revolution were, in fact, Freemasons.

Modern day conspiracy "theorists have accused the Masons of everything from satanic worship to playing a role in the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Some claim that the lower ranks of the organization are just a front for the highest-order Freemasons, who they say are involved in plots to control the world's governments and financial institutions" (Watson, 2009). While the evidence linking the Freemasons to involvement in the JFK assassination is circuitous and requires a suspension of disbelief, there was actually very compelling evidence to suggest that the Freemasons were involved in Satanism:

In the late 1880s, a mischievous French writer and former Mason, known by his pen name Leo Taxil, set out to play on Catholic fears of the order. He claimed to expose the order's greatest secret, known only to the highest-degree Masons: that the secret religion of Masonry was the worship of Lucifer. Even after Taxil confessed to the hoax in 1897, the myth served as a staple of anti-Masonic lore, peddled in books like evangelist Pat Robertson's New World Order (Tolson, 2005).

Conspiracy theorists suggest that Taxil's initial expose revealed the truth, and that his confession that it was actually a hoax was the result of him being intimidated by existing Freemasons.

One of the incidents fueling the idea that the Freemasons are involved in conspiracies was related to the abduction and possible murder of William Morgan in 1826. Morgan was a former Freemason who wrote an expose on Freemasonry, in which he purported to be revealing all of its secrets. To retaliate, three Freemasons abducted Morgan and took him to the Canadian border. What happened to Morgan after that time is unclear. "One story tells the abductors drowned Morgan in the Niagara River. Another claims he escaped across the border to live the remainder of his life in Canada. Despite the lack of clear evidence in the case, the event sparked great anger against the Freemasons, whom many Americans viewed as murderers" (Watson, 2009).

Another reason that modern critics have suggested that the Freemasons are involved in conspiracies is the link between Freemasons and the Ku Klux Klan. It is known that Albert Pike, a leader of the Scottish Rite Masonry in the Southern (U.S.) Jurisdiction was one of the six original founders of the Ku Klux Klan (King, KKK, 2009). There are a wide variety of explanations for Pike's involvement, many of them focusing on the fact that, for a man of his time period, Pike's racist attitudes were not unusual. After all, Pike was a former Confederate soldier, and anti-black sentiment was very strong during the Reconstruction period. Moreover, there have been multiple incarnations of the Klan, and there is nothing to definitively link Pike's involvement in the Klan with the type of racist violence one associates with later Klan activities. However, that does not detract from the reality that one of the more prominent Freemasons in the United States was involved in the creation of the most active and threatening domestic terrorist organization ever to exist in the United States. While a conspiracy of silence protected many Klan members from prosecution for some of their more awful activities, including the lynching and other murders of literally hundreds of young black males, the Klan has been conclusively linked to many of those crimes. While there may not be any link between the modern Klan and modern Freemasons, the Freemasons' commitment to secrecy makes it impossible to verify whether or not such a connection exists.

Symbolism in Freemasonry

One of the reasons that Freemasons are thought to be involved in conspiracies is that they use both symbols and rituals in their proceedings, which cloaks their behavior in secrecy. The symbols are both literal physical representations and symbolic acts. "The primary symbol is the square and compass surrounding the letter 'G.' The G. represents God (or, alternately the sacred geometry of the original operative Masons), the square encourages members to square their actions with all men, and the compass stands for creating boundaries in life. The Freemasons wear a distinctive apron decorated with these emblems of the organization" (Watson, 2009).

One of the most interesting symbols in Freemasonry, which helps support claims of religious overtones, is the manner in which new recruits are inducted into the Lodge. "During the initiation ceremony, the Freemasons recount the building of King Solomon's Temple and the murder of Hiram Abiff. The new member is blindfolded and confronted by three men, who order him to reveal the Freemasons' secrets. He swears he will not tell, and then pretends to die and be resurrected into Masonry" (Watson, 2009). Of course, the idea of resurrection has strong religious overtones for Christians.

One of the more commonly recognized symbols of masonry is the eye in the pyramid, as appears on the Great Seal of the United States and the U.S. dollar bill. In fact, many people have used the fact that this symbol appears on these two things to support the idea of a Masonic conspiracy in the U.S. government. However, "the simple fact is that the eye in the pyramid is not now nor has it ever been a Masonic symbol" (King, Eye, 2009). The Freemasons do have a similar symbol, the Eye of Providence, which is to remind Freemasons that they are always being watched by a Supreme Being. In addition, the Freemasons sometimes use pyramids as symbols, but they do not generally combine the two elements together (King, Eye, 2009).

Another famous symbol of Freemasonry is the apron:

There can be no doubt that the Masonic apron has been developed from the apron worn by operative masons in the middle ages. The few examples surviving show that the operative apron was fashioned from the skin of an animal, most probably a sheep. It was large enough to cover the wearer from chest to ankles, and its fall was held by a leathern thong which passed round the neck. From each side a thong, firmly stitched, enabled the mason to tie the apron round his waist, and the tied bow tended to fall as end-strings. The use of this rough apron continued for many centuries; the woven apron used by modern masons is comparatively late; it came into use in the eighteenth century (Worts, 2009).

Speculative Freemasons continued to wear the apron, though it gradually changed form from the practical apron worn by actual masons to the decorative form of the apron today. In addition to being a symbol in its own right, the Masonic apron has also become a manner in which to display other Masonic symbols, since it is frequently decorated with other commonly-recognized symbols of Freemasonry.

In addition to the more famous symbols of Freemasonry, there are several lesser-known symbols that are highly associated with the fraternity. Bees and beehives are associated with Freemasonry and are said to represent industriousness. The compass is a symbol widely used in Masonry, though the angle of the degrees in the compass does not seem to have symbolic significance. The compass itself symbolizes the operative Freemasons, who used the compass to measure angles in architecture. The square and the triangle's symbolism are like that of the compass. The Golden Ratio, which also has its roots in math and architecture, is another symbol of masonry, and, like the compass, is associated with operative Masonry. The swastika was once a symbol that was associated with masons, and was used by some masons. However, following the Nazi usage of the symbol, its popularity among other groups declined dramatically, since its usage was thought to coincide with anti-Semitic beliefs. The Cable-Tow is another symbol, and its symbolic meaning seems to vary widely among different Lodges; however, it is used to physically bring Freemasons into the Lodge and to symbolize some type of pledge or vow. There are multiple coats of arms symbolizing the Masons. The color blue is a Masonic symbol, which was originally featured on aprons, but has come to be widely associated with the Masons. The moon is a Masonic symbol that can trace its history to the alchemists and their pursuit for scientific truths. The coffin with a sprig of acacia is said to symbolize mortality. Masons place symbolic significance in numbers. The pentagram is a widely-acknowledged Masonic symbol; however there is substantial controversy about its meaning. In pop culture, the pentagram has come to be associated with occult meaning, but traditional symbolism links the pentagram to Christianity just as easily as it does to occult practices. Pillars are another symbol used in Masonry and are said to symbolize the pillars of King Solomon's temple. Swords have been another symbol of Freemasonry, and, swords were at one time considered tools for some types of masonry and stonework. Of course, the significance of swords probably went beyond practical building applications and was related to their ability to provide for self-defense and offensive tactical behaviors.

Degrees of Freemasonry

There are numerous degrees in Freemasonry, a fact that is complicated by a degree structure that appears to be broken down in two different ways. On a broad level there are Entered Apprentices, Freecraft Masons, and Master Masons. With each new level, a Mason learns more information about the secrets of Freemasonry. However, while Master Mason is the highest level ever attained by most Masons, there are actually 33 levels of Mason. The history subsection demonstrated how Masons can become Shriners, and explained that a prerequisite for that is that a man becomes a Master Mason in the Blue Lodge. While Shriner is not a degree of Freemason, it does help demonstrate that one may move beyond level three in Freemasonry. The number of total levels depends on whether Freemasons belong to the York Rite or the Scottish Rite. The York Rite contains a total of 13 levels, which correspond to, but are different from, the first 13 of 33 levels in the Scottish Rite. In addition, because there is no real oversight of different jurisdictions, each jurisdiction can have different degrees. However, the 33 commonly-recognized degrees of Freemasons are as follows: 1) Entered Apprentice; 2) Fellow Craft; 3) Master Mason; 4) Secret Master; 5) Perfect Master; 6) Intimate Secretary; 7) Provost and Judge; 8) Intendant of the Building; 9) Elect of Nine; 10) Elect of Fifteen; 11) Sublime Elect; 12) Grand Master Architect; 13) Royal Arch of Enoch; 14) Scottish Knight of Perfection; 15) Knight of the Sword / Knight of the East; 16) Prince of Jerusalem; 17) Knight of the East and West; 18) Knight of the Pelican and Eagle and Sovereign Prince Rose Croix of Heredom; 19) Grand Pontiff; 20) Venerable Grand Master; 21) Patriarch Noachite; 22) Prince of Libanus; 23) Chief of the Tabernacle; 24) Prince of the Tabernacle; 25) King of the Brazen Serpent; 26) Prince of Mercy; 27) Commander of the Temple; 28) Knight of the Sun; 29) Knight of St. Andrew; 30) Grand Elected Knight Kadosh, Knight of the Black and White Eagle; 31) Grand Inspector Inquisitor Commander; 32) Sublime Prince of the Royal Secret; and 33) Grand Inspector General (Watson, 2009).