French and Indian War

French and Indian War

Cultural Analysis of French and Indian War

The French and Indian War is considered to be part of Seven Years War that took place from 1756 till 1763. It is one of the most fierce and bloodiest battles that ever took place and in which thousands of people were killed. Participants of the war included French, Indians and British. It is believed that the war was fought in order to gain control over North America and clash over colonies between France and England over power and wealth.

The French and Indian War

The French and Indian War is considered to be part of Seven Years War that took place from 1756 till 1763. It is one of the most fierce and bloodiest battles that ever took place and in which thousands of people were killed. Participants of the war included French, Indians and British. It is believed that the war was fought in order to gain control over North America and clash over colonies between France and England over power and wealth. The global war was seen as a product of rivalry that was found between French and British colonists living in the North American territories. The goal of this paper is to analyze the French and Indian War in historical and cultural context in the lights of broad and diverse academic resources.

Historical Background

Before the war had been started, tension prevailed between Britain and France over American territories as each of them aimed at increasing their presence there. The war was undeclared and in history, it is now known as the French and Indian War, started in November, in the year 1753. George Washington from Virginia along with some other men was on their way to Ohio. They had been sent to give a message to the French troops, who had occupied the region[footnoteRef:2]. The demand from the British side was to remove French troops from that area. However, French side did not accept this message and did not withdraw its forces. A year later, orders were given by British officials to George Washington, which instructed him to build a fort near Pittsburgh. However, he had failed to so as the French power was strong in that area. In the same year, Washington and his troops came into clash with the French troops and thus, Washington had experienced a loss and had to retreat the fort that he had built in a month. This incident resulted in small clashes between the two sides[footnoteRef:3]. In the year 1755, General Edward Braddock was sent to look after the British Colonial forces. However, during his journey, he was attacked by French and in the process lost his life. [2: Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766. New York: Knopf] [3: Brumwell, Stephen (2006). Redcoats: The British Soldier and War in the Americas, 1755-1763. Cambridge University Press. ]

The formal declaration of the war took place in May, in the year 1756. During the early three years, the French had been successful in defeating the English at Fort Ticonderoga and Oswego. The most dangerous battle and casualty took place at Fort William, where British troops were massacred by the French and its Indian allies[footnoteRef:4]. [4: Brumwell, Stephen (2006). Redcoats: The British Soldier and War in the Americas, 1755-1763. Cambridge University Press. ]

However, to deal with these issues, the British concentrated on making peace with Indian tribes over there, under the leadership of Lord William Pitt. He concentrated on using their war strategies in order to wage war against the French and to gain advantage over them. Many of the alliances between the French and Indian were broken and hence, British side took keen interest in making alliances with these tribes. This proved to be beneficial for the British side. After years of battled, the French finally were defeated in September, in the year 1759 in Quebec. In the year 1760, Britain had been successful in controlling the entire North American region and the war between Britain and France was over as Britain emerged as the winner. In the year 1763, Treaty of Paris was signed between the two sides, which also ended the European Seven Years Wars[footnoteRef:5]. According to this treaty, France had to give out all of it territories in North America to Britain and Spain. [5: Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766. New York: Knopf]

The French presence ended in North America but Britain had conflicts with the Indians as the lands belonged to the latter. The tension between the Native Americans and British continues for several years[footnoteRef:6]. The outcomes of the war was that the French power ended in North America and Britain had been successful in gaining power but it experienced conflicts with the Native Indians and later, with the colonists that led to the American Revolution. [6: Timothy J. Todish and Todd E. Harburn. A "Most Troublesome Situation": The British Military and the Pontiac Indian Uprising of 1763-1764.(Book review) (Michigan Historical Review)]

North American during the Eighteenth Century

In North America, estimated population of French was 75000. Majority of them lived near St. Lawrence Valley and minority living in Acadia and New Orleans. Few of them were settled near Mississippi River, on its eastern side. Business and trade existed between the French and local tribes and several of the French had married Indian women[footnoteRef:7]. The population of British was estimated to be 1.5 million and most of them were settled in Nova Scotia, Georgia and Newfoundland. British were settled near the coast but still they concentrated on expanding their presence in North America. They had captured Nova Scotia in 1713 from France. Claims were also made by Britain over Rupert's Land. [7: Calloway, Colin G (2006). The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America. Oxford University Press]

Between the French and British, majority of the areas belonged to Native Indian tribes. In north, Abenaki and Mikmag tribes were settled in Nova Scotia, Acadia and some eastern parts of Canada. Native Americans were also present in Ohio Country and Upstate New York, where Shawnee and Mingo tribes were found[footnoteRef:8]. Towards the south, tribes that were not in conflict with French or British included Ojibwa, Winnebago and Potawatomi. During the war, British were actively supported by Iroquois and Cherokee. Majority of the northern tribes supported French as they were their business partners as well supplied them with arms and weapons. Creek and Cherokee were targeted by both French and British in order to gain their support or neutrality. Spain also had presence in North America. However, Florida was the only province it controlled. Furthermore, it had gained power and control in Cuba and West Indies[footnoteRef:9]. [8: Calloway, Colin G (2006). The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America. Oxford University Press] [9: Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766. New York: Knopf]

Context of the War

The French and Indian War is considered to be the gain of colonial power and presence in North America and was driven by the same forces and conflicts that had led to the European Seven Years Wars. The war was on imperialism. Britain and France were in constant competition to gain power and control over colonies, land and business in North America. These conflicts led to the war and disputes over land[footnoteRef:10]. The most obvious dispute was over Ohio Valley. Both sides knew that this region was important as it would assist them to increase their power and control and benefit from these riches and thus, eliminating rivalry as one of the two would be dominant. Although the British side had been successful in winning the war, tensions between the Indians and the British colonists and Revolutionary War. After the end of the war, Britain had started to raise taxes in American colonies in order to generate revenues as its treasury was on the verge of bankruptcy because of constant wars. Furthermore, it also violated the policies it made with Indians and therefore, conflicts between British and Native Americans continued for several years. [10: Axtell, James. The Invasion Within. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005]

The French and Indian War also had detrimental impact on Native Americans of North America. Firstly, the tribes who sided with the French had to face the atrocities of British. Their supplies had been cut off and furthermore, they had to abide by the British rules and regulations. On the other hand, Native tribes who had sided with the British believed that they would get their lands back and hence, the European invasion would end. However, as soon as the French were gone, Britain concentrated on settling on the lands that belonged to these tribes. This led to the Pontiacs War, after the end of French and Indian War[footnoteRef:11]. [11: Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766. New York: Knopf]

The war is frequently seen as war that existed between France and Britain. However, Indian nations were also active participants of the War and hence, they had either sided with France or Britain. These tribes had played a dominant role in starting the war as well as the consequences of the war[footnoteRef:12]. To control the land, the fight was between the three nations and in late eighteenth century, it was not evident who would emerge as the dominant player. Iroquois, the five Indian tribes, had been successful at ensuring that French and British sides fight with one another in order to gain advantage over them. French and Indian War was also comprised of quick and surprise attacks as the both foreign nations were not familiar with the terrain as compared to the Native Americans[footnoteRef:13]. The involvement of Native American tribes as allies made a significant difference in war for both sides. Some of the historians assert that Indian nations had turned their back on French side and sided with the British. Because the alliances had ended between the French and Indians, therefore, French forces had no option but to leave territory[footnoteRef:14]. [12: Walter R. Borneman. The French & Indian War: Deciding the Fate of North America.(Book review) (Michigan Historical Review] [13: Anderson, Fred (2005). The War that Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War. New York: Viking] [14: Anderson, Fred (2005). The War that Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War. New York: Viking]

Significance of Political Alliances

For both French and British side, alliances with Native Americans were important in order to fortify their position in North America. Iroquois and Huton, two Native American tribes, were of significant importance[footnoteRef:15]. The two tribes also held importance as they were engaged in fur trade and both were competitors of one another. During the sixteenth century, both tribes concentrated on creating confederacies. Huron consisted of Rock, Deer, Cord and Bear tribes. The Iroquois tribe comprised of Oneida, Mohawk, Cayuga, Onondaga and Seneca tribes. As compared to Huron, the Iroquois were more organized and skillful in combats. During 1648, Iroquois combatants had been successful in capturing and killing several Hurons and had been successful in gaining their territories and thus, driving the remaining Huron tribe towards Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. [15: Axtell, James. The Invasion Within. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005]

Because of their fierce battling skills, Iroquois held important place in North America and strategic alliance with them would have assisted both French and English side to gain control over the region. The territories of Iroquois tribe were between Ohio and Mississippi rivers. The French made alliances with the Huron tribe, who were the rivals of Iroquois. Because of this, the Iroquois League had made alliances with British side[footnoteRef:16]. From 1664, Iroquois tribe developed trade relationships with the British colonists of Albany[footnoteRef:17]. Diplomatic relationships were also maintained by the two sides. [16: Walter R. Borneman. The French & Indian War: Deciding the Fate of North America.(Book review) (Michigan Historical Review] [17: Jennings, Francis. Empire of Fortune. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2008.]

Cultural Analysis of the French and Indian War

Religious Differences

French

During the seventeenth century, the primary religion followed by France was Catholicism. France was the main center of Roman Catholics and relationship between Pope and King of France were also present. Protestants were also present in France and hence they were in constant conflict with Catholics. Most of the Protestants were prosecuted in France by the Roman Catholics. Conflicts between the two sides increased further in 1527 St. Bartholomew's Day massacre[footnoteRef:18]. Edict of Nantes issued in 1598, opened the path of religious tolerance and secularism as Protestants were given the rights to practice their faith and furthermore, they were given the right to work in State. However, religious conflict between the two communities prevailed during the rule of Louis XIV[footnoteRef:19]. Protestants were persecuted by Dragnnades and forced Protestants to convert back to Catholicism. Consequently, Protestant population of France moved to England in order to seek asylum. King Louis XIV concentrated on wiping out the Protestant population in France. [18: Anderson, Fred (2005). The War that Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War. New York: Viking] [19: Jennings, Francis. Empire of Fortune. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2008.]

Britain

During the seventeenth century, Protestant continued to grow in Northern part of Europe. Majority of them lived in Germany, England, Scotland, Poland and Scandinavia. In Britain, during the seventeen century, England experienced Puritan movement, which concentrated on reforming of the Church of England and concentrated on ensuring that it was closely related to the Protest churches that were found in other regions of Europe. They did not believe in religious practices bur rather believed in spirituality. These movements also influenced colonies of England. Furthermore, in America, Puritanism influenced religion and Protestants became significant majority in the region. Furthermore, policies had been developed to conduct peaceful trade between England, North American colonies and Native Americans.

Indians

Native American religion is based on land they lived and supernatural. Religious practices may differ in accordance to the tribe but majority of the tribes had common supernatural beliefs: they believed in a deity, who is powerful, universal force that is invisible, the concept of three life crisis, birth, puberty and death, spirits, visions and ceremonies[footnoteRef:20]. Native American religion is based on spirituality and personal development and its connection with the world and connection between the existing and spiritual world. Their religion comprised of several religious ceremonies that were related to agriculture and hunting. Furthermore, they believed in spirituality and spiritual world and believed that spirits resided in living and non-living things. Furthermore, they concentrated on gaining spiritual powers in order to benefit man kinds. In terms of hunting, some of the hunters performed rituals in order pacify the spirits of the animals they had hunted and killed. The religion of North Americans were not based on institutions but rather was based on personal beliefs. Rituals also comprises of long ceremonies and dances. Furthermore, religions concentrated on relationship with the Creator and the land where they lived and with the living and nonliving things. Religion was never separated from daily and public life as compared to religions in the West, where, individuals practiced religion in churches only. For Native Americans, there religion was based on their relationship with the Creator and everything in the surroundings the lived. Rocks, trees, animals and trees, were all important and visible and were respected by them. Furthermore, historians assert that Native American religion did not have any difference between the living and the dead, past and present and spiritual and natural worlds. Most of Native American tribes believed that their religious beliefs were part of their culture and traditions and thus, spirituality was important for them. [20: Schwartz, Seymour. The French and Indian War 1754-1763. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004.]

Cultural and Religious Factor Influencing French and Indian Wars

From historical perspective, the fight had been seen as a war and conflict between England and France. However, many Indian nations had played a vital role in influencing the war and starting it. From cultural perspective, the War was between three nations, Indians, French and British. The goal of all three was to ensure that they gain power and territories. In 1753, the French concentrated on consolidating their power in North America and for this purpose they built their ports in Ohio and invading the land that was previously claimed by Britain by Virginia[footnoteRef:21]. For this purpose, George Washington along with his men went to French Captain Legareur de Saint-Pieere to remove the French troops from the area that belonged to British. In order to deliver the message, Washington concentrated on getting help from Ohio Indians. However, he did not get help from them and French ignored the message and continued to violate the Virginia charter. French had a power presence in that region and therefore on British orders, Washington was not successful in establishing a fort near Pittsburgh. In 1754, a meager fort was made by Washington, which was seized by French. This act further had a negative impact on relationship between British and French[footnoteRef:22]. [21: Steele, Ian. Betrayals. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.] [22: Steele, Ian. Betrayals. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.]

Assassination of General Braddock

Fort Necessity was captured by French and for this purpose, Britain concentrated on allocating financial resources to the colonies in order to expand its military. Furthermore, British troops were also sent to England colonies. Edward Braddock initially arrived in Virginia in the year 1755. Being a trained general in European warfare but was not aware of the new territory. After his arrival, the first battle that had occurred between British and French side occurred when 2000 British troops invaded Acadia, which was controlled by France and the region collapsed during 1755. Many of the battles were small and insignificant as the population was low. Without any direct conflict among the troops, some of the forts were won and occupied. Acadia was lost by French side but did not have any strategic value. Under Braddock's leadership, first battle occurred at Fort Duquesne. The French won the battle even though they were outnumbered by British. British forced were ambushed near Monongahela River, utilizing trees in order to conduct the ambush. Braddock was killed.

From cultural perspective, North America was diverse in culture. Three major nations were present in the territory and these included English, French and Indians. English territory was less compared to French territory in 1753. Most of the English settlers were living in Appalachian Mountains and near the Atlantic coast. The French were settled in New Orleans and St. Louis. The goal of the French was to ensure that Britain remained within the mountainous and coastal region. French population was sparely distributed in land and they were engaged in fur trade with the local Native Americans.

The battle in which General Braddock had been defeated was because of lack of cultural awareness. Braddock fighting style was based on fighting on the plains of Britain and Europe, where the red jacket troops marched along the line towards the enemy. In Europe, this was the main strategy of war. However, the Native Americans land was covered with mountains, dense forests and hills[footnoteRef:23]. The landscape was twisted where the French and Indian war took place. Therefore, Braddock's style of fighting could not be applied in the warfare. Strategy of war to be used should have those as that of used by Native Americans, such as surprise attacks and gureilla warfare. One of the advantages that the French side had that they had created alliances with the local Native Americans and for this purpose; they were engaged in fur trade and war skills[footnoteRef:24]. This allowed the French to understand the American landscape and their ability to apply that understanding. The failure of British to form alliances with the Native Americans also had an impact on the defeat. [23: White, Richard. The Middle Ground. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001] [24: White, Richard. The Middle Ground. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001]

British Superiority Attitude towards Native Americans

William Johnson played an important role in recruiting allies and successfully winning victories against the French. For Britain, it was essential to maintain alliances with the Indians. Britain had a difficult time in devising a strong strategy to form alliance with the Indians as compared to the French. Colonial policy and cultural difference between the three nations had influenced the war. Generally, Britain believed that the Native Indians were pagans and barbarians with an uncivilized way of life. They believed they were far more superior as compared to these Native American[footnoteRef:25]s. This belief that they were superior culturally had an influence on the relationship between the Indians and the British[footnoteRef:26]. Furthermore, they wanted to change the religion of the Indians and converting them to Protestant Christianity. In simple terms, the British wanted to civilize the Native Americans by integrating their religion, culture and way of life into their society. Furthermore, they believed that the Native Americans outdated ways of fighting in American wilderness would not allow them to win victory against French. [25: Schwartz, Seymour I. The French and Indian War, 1754-1763: The Imperial Struggle for North America. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004.] [26: White, Richard. The Middle Ground. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001]

On the other hand, culturally and religiously, French understood the significance of alliance with the Indians and showed religious and cultural tolerance towards them. Furthermore, they even married Indian women and were engaged in fur trade[footnoteRef:27]. French did not have interest in changing the history as well as the culture of the colonies they had colonized. Even though they believed that they were culturally superior to Native Americans and also converted them to Catholicism, yet they demonstrated religious and cultural tolerance. Therefore, French had been successful in forming alliances with the Indian tribes, which gave them advantage against the British. [27: Middleton, Richard. The Bells of Victory: The Pitt- Newcastle Ministry and the Conduct of the Seven Years' War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.]