Society - Gender Theory Theoretical

Society - Gender Theory

THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO GENDER

Human behavior is influenced tremendously by different elements of biology and culture. Even the most fundamental attributes of the individual, such as gender-specific expression is undoubtedly a combination of evolutionary biology, as evidenced by parallels between human behavior and that of numerous other higher animal species that reproduce sexually. Similarly, there is a powerful interpersonal basis for most aspects of human behavior, shaped by early life experiences (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2005).

Undoubtedly, the original basis for gender differentiation is biological, but within the human species, culture and social learning is the primary determinant of most outwardly observable gender-based social behavior. Society establishes and defines common expectations associated with gender and cultural practices, beliefs, and customs account for the tremendous variation apparent among different human societies and different ethnic groups (Henslin, 2002; Macionis, 2003).

The Cultural Influences on Gender-Based Behavioral Expression:

In the late 1980s, social theorists West and Zimmer introduced the concept of doing gender, to describe the degree to which individuals express their gender in exactly the manner prescribed by their prevailing social environment. Rather than necessarily discounting the influence of biological and evolutionary factors, the concept of "doing gender" simply refers to the fact that social learning is responsible for shaping human behavior within the much more general direction established by biological gender assignment (Henslin, 2002; Macionis, 2003). Therefore, when adult males express chauvinistic attitudes and repress their emotions and adult females experience shame in connection with their sexual urges, those represent just a few of many examples where the individual is merely acting out social roles shaped by cultural learning (Efthim, Kenny, & Mahalik, 2001).

Human intelligence is responsible for the much richer variety of cultural differences in different human societies than apparent in different societies of other animal species, and the extensive differences in cultural expectations, beliefs, and practices within human cultures includes the very definition of behaviors and attitudes that become characteristic of the two genders. In that regard, concepts of masculinity and femininity differ substantially among different ethnic cultures, as do beliefs and values that define acceptable behavior for members of each gender (Abreu, Goodyear, Campos, et al., 2000). In American society, evidence of the profound influence of social culture on behavior in general and on gender expression in particular is obvious when comparing characteristically male and characteristically female behavior inherent in the prevailing beliefs and expectations within ethnic cultures.

Anecdotal Examples:

One of the most prominent examples of socially influenced gender-specific behavior concerns the response of the individual to emotions. Generally, males are socialized from very early on to distance themselves from their emotions and to redirect their emotional energies outward and channel them into tangible release mechanisms, such as sports, superficial camaraderie, or productive work. Conversely, females are socialized to experience their emotions more fully and they are encouraged to express them directly. As a result, males often overcompensate for emotional issues as a means of avoiding dealing with them (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2005).

Another example of socially influenced gender-specific behavior is the fact that generally, males are socialized to externalize any feelings of guilt, shame, or inadequacy, whereas females are socialized to internalize those sensations (Bruch, 2002; Efthim, Kenny, & Mahalik, 2001). As a result, guilt, shame, and fears of inadequacy in males tends to be expressed most often only indirectly, such as by overcompensation through the pursuit of socially valued achievements. Meanwhile, those issues in females are much more likely to correspond to internalized diminishment of self-worth and to external behaviors and choices likely to confirm and perpetuate those internalized messages or to "punish" the individual through their predictably bad consequences (Efthim, Kenny, & Mahalik, 2001).

Biology establishes only very general gender-specific natural tendencies and behavioral differences; society further shapes the outward expression of those biological differences into more particular gender-based behavioral expression. However, cultural influences account for the precise way those tendencies manifest themselves in the specific behavior among individuals within social groups. Within Latino cultures, for example, over-idealization of the mother figure often conflicts with the male acknowledgement of female sexuality in a manner that affects marriage negatively (Abreu, Goodyear, Campos, et al., 2000).

Specifically, the so-called "whore-Madonna" complex makes it difficult for many men to reconcile their contradictory views of women in such a way that they cannot perceive their wives as both sexual beings and good mothers to their children. In many ways, this explains the comparative greater frequency of male infidelity being perceived as an excusable manner of fulfilling a need rather than a violation of marital values within certain cultures (Abreu, Goodyear, Campos, et al., 2000). While biology is undoubtedly responsible for a large part of the apparent differences in the respective patterns of extramarital sexuality between the genders, it is social learning and internalized cultural values that determines the typical patterns of their expression.

Married non-Latino males also engage in extramarital sex more frequently than females, but generally, by virtue of the spontaneous sexual urges to which all males are more susceptible than females, or as a reflection of marital problems. Married Latino males tend to engage in extramarital affairs more because of culturally learned values that conflict with their ability to seek sexual fulfillment from their wives without diminishing their respect for her in her maternal role (Abreu, Goodyear, Campos, et al., 2000).

Conclusion:

The conclusion that social learning and more particularly, cultural values are the most dominant influence on human gender expression does not contradict the fundamental biological and evolutionary basis of human behavior much more generally.