Genome Human Cloning Human Cloning

Genome Human Cloning

Human Cloning

Cloning is the set of techniques applied to build an identical genetic duplicate of a different cell, tissue or a living organism. The material that has been copied having the identical genetic constitution is normally stated to be the clone. In the history of animal cloning, the most famous clone was the sheep Dolly who became the first mammal to be cloned from an adult DNA. Three different types of cloning are present: These are (i) Gene cloning which helps create replica of genes or DNA segments (ii) Reproductive cloning which helps create duplicates of entire animals (iii) Therapeutic cloning which helps in creating embryonic stem cells. Thesis statement: Therapeutic cloning offers ray of new hope to researchers to utilize embryonic stem -- ES cells to grow normal healthy tissue to substitute infected or damaged tissues carry on with life. (Medicine Plus, 2008)

Body of supportive evidence with effective visuals:

As stated above, the expression cloning is used by scientists to define a lot of separate procedures and techniques which is used to make copies of biological material. In majority of instances, isolated genes or cells are copied for scientific research without any new animal. The research projects which resulted in cloning of Dolly were separate. There, a cloning procedure known as somatic cell nuclear transfer was used resulting in an animal which was a twin, albeit a genetic one separated by time of a full-grown sheep. This method is also capable to make an embryo from which cells known as embryonic stem -- ES cells could harvested to apply in research into possible treatment for a broad range of infections and ailments. Hence in the last five years, majority of the scientific and ethical debate regarding nuclear transfer of somatic cell has concentrated on its two possible uses viz (i) for purposes of reproduction in order to give birth to an offspring and (ii) for generating a source of ES cell for research purposes. However, in this paper as per the thesis statement we shall concentrate on cloning for the isolation of Human ES cells for therapeutic purposes. (National Human Genome Research Institute, n. d.)

The discussion for cloning was again opened during 1998 clashing with release of two reports on the successful isolation of human ES cells. These cells are unique and important cells located in animals which are constantly under reproduction and tissue renewal, right through the life cycle of a living being. ES Cells are found to be the most adaptable among all ES cells as they are almost homogeneous, or dedicated to a specialized function compared to adult stem cells. These cells have offered new hope to sometimes incapacitating and critical illness also. Latest researches carried on in mice and other animals have revealed that ES cells can help in the minimizing manifestations of Parkinson's diseases in mouse models, and also found to show results in other animal models with possible hope for cures. In the reports of 1988, ES cells were obtained from in vitro embryos of six to seven days old that are normally discarded by the couples enduring treatment for infertility and embryonic germ cell -- EG cells were collected from cadaveric fetal tissue subsequent to abortion. (National Human Genome Research Institute, n. d.)

Another third report published in the NY Times declared that a Massachusetts biotechnology company has been successful in fusing a human cell with an enucleated cow egg, making a hybrid clone which was unsuccessful in getting past an early state of development. This declaration worked as a cue that ES cells are also capable of being obtained from embryos build through somatic cell nuclear transfer, or cloning. Indeed, a lot of scientists regarded that obtaining ES cell through this process is going to be the most capable method to developing treatments as the nature of in vitro fertilization -- IVF embryos preserved for longer periods is doubtful and this nature of cloning could surpass graft-host reactions in case the consequential treatments were developed from the own DNA of the recipient. (National Human Genome Research Institute, n. d.)

As regards policy and regulation, DHHS declared that it planned to spend money for research on human ES cells derived from embryos staying following infertility treatments. This inference was founded on an explanation that embryonic stem cells of humans are not human embryo within the statutory meaning as the cells have not developed the potential to grow into a complete individual although following its transfer into the uterus. Therefore, their destruction in the time frame of research would never mean the destruction of an embryo. DHHS did not have plans to finance research through the use of stem cells obtained from embryos that have been created by means of cloning, even though such endeavors would be within the limit of law in the private sector. It is worthwhile to note that only human genome cloning has been allowed solely for therapeutic purposes by the Congress. (National Human Genome Research Institute, n. d.)

The process of 'manufacturing' cloned cells or organisms are to clone. The technique varies depending on the type of cells that are used in the cloning technique and the wanted outcome. Normally, while scientists proceed to clone an animal, they take the cell nucleus containing chromosomes made out of deoxyribonucleic acid -- DNA and proteins and put into an egg which is also known as an oocyte from which is devoid of the nucleus. Thereafter the egg cells divides to give birth to an embryo which forms an animal, if the methods proceed on course as intended. A diagram of the laboratory procedure created to produce Rhesus money and the process of creation of the world's fist clone sheep Dolly are shown in Exhibit -I and Exhibit -II respectively. (Barnes, n. d.)

Therapeutic Cloning which is also known as 'embryo cloning' is considered as the formation of human embryos that can be capable for usage in research. The outcome of the technique is not the production of creating cloned humans, however instead of collecting stem cells which could be applied in the study of human growth and also for the treatment of future diseases. From the biological point-of-view, stem cells are significant to those who conduct biomedical research since they could be used to produce almost any category of specialized cell inside the body of a human being. Stem cells are drawn from the egg subsequent to its division for 5 days. The egg during this phase of growth is known as a blastocyst. The procedure of extraction results in the destruction of the embryo that puts forth a lot of ethical questions. A lot of researchers anticipate that some day, stem cells will be capable of being used to serve as substitute cells for the treatment of cardiac ailments. ("Cloning Fact Sheet: Therapeutic Cloning," 2006)

Alzheimer's disease, cancer and a lot of other diseases can be treated with cloning in organ transplants. For example in November, 2001, scientists from a biotechnology company in Massachusetts -Advanced Cell Technologies -- ACT came forward with the declaration that they has been successful in cloning the first embryos of humans for the objective of promoting therapeutic research. In order to achieve this end, they received eggs from the ovaries of women and subsequently took away the genetic material relating to these eggs by a needle measuring below 2/10,000th of an inch in width. Thereafter a skin cell had been introduced within the enucleated egg to act as the new form of nucleus. The egg started division following stimulation with inomycim, a chemical. Even though this technique started off with 8 eggs, just 3 started dividing, and just 1 among them were capable of dividing into six cells prior to ending. ("Cloning Fact Sheet: Therapeutic Cloning," 2006)

Some Statistics i) in Portugal, scientist, with the help of 'olfactory enshething glial cells' obtained from the patient's nose lining to help treating injuries of spinal cord. The two young ladies were shown in a press conference, one of whom suffered paralysis and the other was a quadriplegic. After the operation, both were in a position to walk with the help of braces, thanks to 'adult stem cells'. (ii) a quadriplegic women of 20 years who got transplanted with 'umbilical cord stem cells' in her spinal injury site is presently capable of walking with the help of a walker. (iii) Stem Cells have been made use of to assist in the repair of damage to the bone of the skull in a girl aged seven in Germany. Not like other bones, skull bones do not regenerate; therefore metal plates have been used for damage repair. Through the use of 'adult stem cells' the bone plates which were missing had been substituted by solid, thin bone. Parts of the own bones of the child added with 'adult stem cells' gave the desired results. (ii) Similarly researchers in London with the help of adult stem cells have treated damaged livers. It is their anticipation to assemble and develop liver cells which are new thereby permitting the liver to work once more. (iii) in the United States, Brazil, Germany and France, humans have been receiving their own stem cells to re-grow heart muscle in the unforeseen incident of heart attack or injury. This was found to be successful in majority of the cases. (iv) in one more incident, the vision of 23 patients was restored after limbal adult stem cell transplants. This line of therapeutic care has assisted a lot of people who have been suffering from blindness for years together that includes the sufferers of mustard gas attacks in Iraqi. (Life Issues Institute, 2006) v) Crohn's disease patients have in fact been treated with stem cells evolved from their own blood. (vi) Among the 90% of the 19 patients having several autoimmune disorders like systemic lupus has been on the path to recovery following treatment with their own blood stem cells. (vii) a research of Parkinson's disease displayed an average improvement of 61% increase of coordination as also minimal symptoms when the patients own neuronal stem cells were transplanted. (viii) Adult stem cells from the 'umbilical cord blood' were added for the cure of leukemia patients. This helped in freeing 14 of the 18 patients of the disease. From the above it can be stated that majority of the studies are in the initial phases and have been performed on models of animals, even though a lot of them have been made use of on human trials. A lone success report relating to the skull bone is not regarded ultimate until other scientists are able to duplicate the same study. It is important that subsequently these trials must be successful in human subjects through the use of adult stem cells prior to such treatments are available for the general public. Majority of the above reports belong to the last 1 to 3 years. (Life Issues Institute, 2006)

Human Cloning:

Even since the birth of the cloned sheep Dolly in 1997, the question of human cloning has been discussed in a lot of forums. The deep ethical issues covering the possibilities of the birth of a human clone have received a lot of analysis. Of late, the discussion contained the theme of human embryonic stem cell research through which scientists could take advantage from experimentation through the method initiated by the scientists who gave birth to Dolly the cloned sheep. Research on stem cells and research cloning are strongly connected. In the private sector, scientists have performed experiments on human embryonic stem cells following extraction of them from residual embryos that has been discarded from treatment of infertility. Scientist's hope that the day is not far when these cells can be used for treatment of diseases, and one of the possible hurdles for that type of methodology is encountering of rejection of the implanted cells by the immune system of the patient. By means of nuclear transplantation, stem cells are possible for creation with the identical genetic blueprint as that of the patient, which research scientists' regard would help in the reduction or complete remove the threat of immune rejection. (AAAS Center for Science, Technology and Congress, 2007)

Of late a lot of options to transplantation through nucleus mode have been suggested. Some of these are (i) deriving stem cells out of dead embryos. However some regard this method as similar to severing of organs from the persons who has died recently. (ii) Taking out stem cells through extracting the blastomeres from live embryos. Currently, this method is used for the testing of IVF embryos for abnormalities at the genetic and chromosomal level. However, long-term impacts of this removal on the health of the person have not been known. Blastomeres are the cells which are formed during the first stages of embryonic development at the time when there is a split of the fertilized ovum. (iii) Through altered nuclear transfer: Under this procedure, the somatic cell nucleus is changed prior to the transfer so that it would it will fail to have the potential of growth of that of the human embryo. (AAAS Center for Science, Technology and Congress, 2007)

Knowledge obtained from the Human Genome Project:

The body of knowledge received from the Human Genome Project will put heavy insinuations for the future drugs as genetic technologies are developed that help us in preventing and treat a broad spectrum of clinical states. In the forthcoming days, majority of the technology surfacing from the Human Genome Project will concentrate straightaway from the genes themselves. A methodology that makes use of short strands of genetic material known as DNA probes will be essential for locating of normal and unusual genes for the diagnostic and purposes of screening. Besides, gene therapy will be applied to transfer genes into cells to repair, change, or improve their function. However, with the sophistication of our body of knowledge, testing mechanisms might concentrate on finding out the presence or absence of gene products like proteins, instead of the gene itself. Treatment for genetic defects will be founded on a handling of the structure of a cell or metabolic functions instead of its DNA. It is important to note that genetic technology among humans will spawn three important practical applications such as diagnostic technology and screening, gene treatment and genetic enhancement. (Mehlman; Botkin, 1998)

Latest developments in Human Cloning:

On the theoretical front, human cloning permits the production of test-tube babies whose genetic heritage would be unmatched in the record of human evolution. Exposure to diseases with an identified genetic constituent like heart ailment can be eliminated. Concurrently, scientists could improve by way of genetic engineering the physical and also the mental characteristics like intelligence, vision and also height. Also the personality features like chances of addictive behavior can as per theory be corrected. The outcome would be the birth of customized babies and finally of a new breed of humans who are genetically advanced. (Stannnar, 2000)

The Human genome Project -- HGP is an excellent technology having potential of generating a high-density map of seemingly all 100000 genes of the human body. Among the major engineers of the projects has mentioned regarding the project declared that this shall also permit polygenic diseases and characteristic to be solved into Mendelian constituents and hence mapped. Nevertheless, whereas that type of map is within the technical reach of the HGP, it will not be possible to bring out from a reading of the map information that by itself will be enough for the diagnosis or forecast of polygenic infections and traits. It will not be possible as the reasoning of polygenic diseases, as differentiated with monogenic diseases, is not to be found in the genome. Instead that logic is encoded in a cellular epigenetic linkage of genes, gene products and environmental signaling. This connection is featured by huge intricacy and informational redundancy. Incremental changes in boundary conditions and environments produced startling results. Lon-term emphasis on linear genetic logic and discounting of epigenetic approaches gives grave difficulties for the future of biotechnology in the sphere of health and medicine. (Kegley, 1998)