Gestalt Theory According to Koffka

¶ … Gestalt theory according to Koffka (Kurt Koffka, Excerpt from "Perception: An introduction to Gestalt-theories" 1922), an act psychology in the tradition of Brentano?

The basic principle behind Gestalt theory is that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Gestalt theory focuses on the structures of the mind As an alternative to Gestalt theory Franz Brentano stressed that it is the activities of the mind that are worthy of scientific study, not mental structures: "When one sees a color, the color itself is not mental. It is the seeing, the act that is mental....every act always refers to (or intends) something outside of itself (intentionality); thus, acts are inseparable from the objects to which they intend" (Act psychology, 2012, Psychology History Timeline). However, Gestalt psychologists like Koffka stressed how it was the mind itself, not the object or the activity that should be the target of study. "I would call the desk at which I am now writing a perception, likewise the flavor of the tobacco" writes Koffka (Koffka 1922: Introduction). Consciousness cannot be reduced to the object outside itself in Gestalt theory; rather it is based in the mental state of the learner. Because Gestalt stresses the importance of understanding the impact of 'the whole' upon the mind and argues that the mind is only capable of understanding things in terms of perceived wholes, it is perceptions as conveyed by mental structures that are important (not mental acts as in Brentano).

The foci of Gestalt theory are sensation, association, and attention. Sensation is how our receptors perceive an object. Association is based in our personal associations with the object, and attention is what details we give particular attention to, as opposed to others. Perception is thus highly individualistic, and perception of the same objects can vary, based upon the individual. The existence of optical illusions demonstrates that the mind is what is significant when studying human consciousness, not the thing itself.

How is Freud's theory "functional" in the sense of a biological adaptation underlying psychological processes (Sigmund Freud, Excerpt from New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis 1933)?

Freud's theory of the id, ego, and superego is often thought of as a metaphorical representation of the human consciousness. However, Freud's theory was based upon biological conceptions of the human mind at the time. "In Freud's day, doctors believed that the large cerebral cortex of the human brain functioned largely to inhibit or suppress the activity of lower brain centers. This conclusion was based on the observation that patients who suffered damage to the cerebral cortex became uninhibited, restless, and impulsive. Freud was trained as a biologist and was attempting to make his theory consistent with biological knowledge of his day" (Dewey 2011). The libidinous id is equated with what would later be called the limbic system. The ego is the force that allows the impulses of the id to be made manifest in action, while the superego is the restraining, socializing force upon the primitive id. The id is tied to pure, biological impulses while the more highly-evolved parts of the brain are able to engage in wish fulfillment (in the form of the ego) and also suppression of immediate impulses (the superego).