Quantitative and qualitative research methods

¶ … Goals

Although quantitative methodologies are still regarded as the gold standard for research projects by many researchers, a growing number are also using qualitative methods or a combination of these methods in their work. To determine the difference, this paper provides a description of the various research designs used in psychology, including qualitative methodologies such as case studies, ethnographies, phenomenological studies, grounded theory studies, as well as content and narrative analyses. In addition, a description of various quantitative methods such as observational studies, correlational research, developmental designs, survey research, experimental design; quasi-experimental, and ex post facto designs is provided. A comparison of qualitative and quantitative methods in terms of their respective strengths and weaknesses is followed by a discussion of some mixed methods that are used in social research. Finally, an examination of the respective strengths and weaknesses of survey research and issues regarding sample size and validity and reliability is followed by a summary of the research and important findings in the conclusion.

Review and Discussion

Qualitative methodologies

Social and business researchers have a number of different types of qualitative methodologies available to them, including case studies, ethnographies, phenomenological studies, grounded theory studies, as well as content and narrative analyses as described further below.

Case study. This type of research project is one in which the researcher studies a few people or cases in great detail over time (Neuman, 2003). According to Creswell (1998), a case study is "an exploration of a 'bounded system' or a case (or multiple cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context" (p. 61).

Ethnographic study.

This is an approach to field research that emphasizes providing a highly detailed description of a different culture from the viewpoint of an insider in that culture in order to gain a greater understanding of it (Neuman, 2003). According to Creswell (2003), "An ethnography is a description and interpretation of a cultural or social group or system. The researcher examines the group's observable and learned patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of life" (p. 58). The emphasis on describing the behavior of individuals or groups in a given culture sets ethnography apart from other qualitative research methods. For instance, Creswell (2003) described an ethnographic study of the selection of a new principal for a public school wherein the researcher focused on "the culture of the school at work in the activities of the Principal Selection Committee" (p. 35).

Phenomenological study. According to Creswell (2003), "A phenomenological study describes the meaning of the lived experiences for several individuals about a concept or the phenomenon" (p. 51). The aim of phenomenological studies is to gain a better understanding of the essential elements of a real-world experience (Creswell, 2003).

Grounded theory study. This is a type of social theory that is based on observations of specific concrete details (Neuman, 2003).

Content analysis. This is research in which one examines patterns of symbolic meaning within written text, audio, visual or other communication medium (Neuman, 2003). Although this research method has been facilitated by the introduction of computer-based technologies, it is not computer dependent. For instance, according to Holsti (1969), "Nearly all research in the social sciences and humanities depends in one way or another on careful reading of written materials. There has been a marked tendency toward viewing content analysis as a basic research tool which may be useful in various disciplines and for many classes of research problems" (pp. 1-3). One of the strengths of this approach is that content analysis can be applied to any form of written or spoken language (Gottschalk, 1995). Although every research setting will be unique in some fashion, there are some generalities involved in content analysis that can be followed by novice researchers. For example, according to Riffe, Lacy and Fico (2005), "Usually, but not always, content analysis involves drawing representative samples of content. The data collected in a quantitative content analysis are then usually analyzed to describe what are typical patterns or characteristics, or to identify important relationships among the variables measured" (p. 2).

Narrative analysis. This research methodology considers the narrative stories provided by narrators as representing their authentic social reality (Etherington, 2004). According to Etherington, "Narrative analysis views life as constructed and experienced through the telling and re-telling of the story, and the analysis is the creation of a coherent and resonant story" (2004, p. 81). Narrative analyses is not intended to identify commonalties or conceptual themes among narrative accounts, but rather relies on the unique qualities of each narrative account to help inform researchers concerning the lived experiences of narrators (Etherington, 2004). In sum, "Narratives can be analyzed for the knowledge they contain (the analysis of narratives), or can be treated as knowledge in themselves (narrative analysis)" (Etherington, 2004, p. 81).

Quantitative methodologies

Although all types of quantitative methodologies involve the analysis of numbers in some form, these approaches can also assume a number of different types including those described further below.

Observational studies. Observational studies require significant resources and time (Neuman, 2003). This type of research is particularly valuable for medical research using clinical interventions that require ongoing assessments of healthcare outcomes (von Elm, Altman, Egger & Pocock, 2008).

Correlational research. This type of research identifies and evaluates the natural relationship that exists between different variables. According to Groat and Wang, "This characteristic means that it is particularly appropriate in circumstances when variables either cannot be manipulated for practical reasons or should not be manipulated for ethical reasons" (2003, p. 244).

Developmental designs. This type of research is used to measure changes that occur over lengthy periods of time (Developmental research, 2012). For example, a developmental design would be suitable for analyzing the differences in academic and social development in low-income vs. high-income neighborhoods. This research design is most common when working with children as subjects and can be undertaken using several methods: longitudinal, cross sectional, and cross sequential (Developmental research, 2012).