Renaissance Building Projects: Their Relationship

¶ … Renaissance Building Projects: Their relationship with the Scientific Revolution Architectural Principles, Construction Technology and Master Builder Tradition

The four buildings discussed above show evidence of the advance of scientific thinking as well as other aspects particular to the Renaissance revolution in architecture. This also applies to the design of these buildings and the techniques and methods of building, which also showed considerable and even radical change and advances in terms of innovation and the use of new scientific methods in a number of important ways.

A study of these buildings also highlights the fact that during the Renaissance the ideas of regularity, symmetry, and harmony were reintroduced as classical ideals. As Milo argues, the Renaissance builders believed these principles could be actualised and "seamlessly applied to architecture" by a scientific mastery of geometry (Milo). This is an aspect that is applicable to many of the most prominent and architecturally innovative buildings of this period as they show the influence of both classicism and mathematics. This also refers to the revival of classical methods, techniques and knowledge which had been lost during the medieval period.

It is also extremely important to emphasize that the most notable examples of Renaissance architecture and buildings are almost invariably to be found in the building of cathedrals, churches, and chapels. Another architectural aspect of this period that stands out is the imitation of the Greco-Roman style and design (Betts 5 -- 25), which can be seen in the incorporation of columns, domes, and arches. In essence, a valid generalization of this period would be that the builders and architects of the period were intent on applying classical principles of design and proportion in numerous Christian structures (Ackerman 3 -- 11). As Partridge notes in this regard, Greco-Roman forms were employed in Renaissance palaces as well, especially in Florence and Rome, and in the beautiful street facades of many cities (Partridge). Walker also emphasizes the fact that the guiding aesthetic principle of this period was based in the classical world (Walker) and that it is this revitalization of ancient architecture that would go on to distinguish Renaissance works from those of the Middle Ages.

As is evidenced by the discussion above, a central facet that came to distinctly characterize the architecture of the Renaissance was the dome. Domes became highly popular following Brunelleschi's work on the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore,

The dome of the Florence cathedral is a prime example of the innovative and unique architectural achievements of this period. It is also noteworthy that these buildings discussed are a blend of the Renaissance and Gothic but that they also transcend these past achievements in terms of unique design and construction. Filippo Brunelleschi was a leader in the creation and establishment of news and innovative standards in architecture. The use of scientific thinking was employed by architects like Brunelleschi to overcome obstacles in design and construction that had existed in the past -- such as building the dome senza armadura without scaffolding.

However, an analysis of these building emphasizes the degree of reference to and reliance on the architectural as well as the aesthetic and stylistic achievements of the master builders and architectural knowledge of the past. This can be seen Brunelleschi's knowledge of Roman construction principle that permitted him to solve the unique engineering and architectural problem that the dome presented. His design of the dome around a pointed arch or ogival, which is more stable in that it reduced any outward thrust that the dome might present at its base, was the first time in architectural and construction history that a design of this nature had been achieved. As Gartner states, there was no precedent for this type of structure (88).

The above point is indicative of a general trend in Renaissance architecture. This refers to the use of scientific knowledge and innovation in imaginative ways to overcome architectural problems and create unique structures. In this regard we could also refer to the devices invented by Brunelleschi that facilitated the transportation upwards and laterally of the sandstone beams and marble slabs. In essence, Brunelleschi's mechanical and engineering techniques exceeded those available in the Middle Ages. In addition, Brunelleschi also built a new form of crane that operated once the stone reached the upper working level. All of these were radical innovations that contributed to the future of engineering. To reiterate the view put forward by Castex; "This manner of thinking through the project as a whole and determining every aspect of its structure, construction, and aesthetics was very different from the traditional ways of the masons and was to some extent the birth of the modern architectural profession"(Castex 52).

Many of the aspects discussed above also apply to the other buildings and architects; such as the design and construction of the Facade of Santa Maria Novella. This construction also shows the influence of Greco-Roman architecture. Its architectural elements comprise a temple-like pedimented upper story with triangular panels and scrolls on a broad base. In this regard Alberti was also unique in the way that he solved various design and architectural problems. It is also noteworthy that Alkberti also contributed to the development of art as well as architecture. He wrote a number of books including a work entitled, on Painting. In general it is acknowledged that he was an influential figure in changing the direction of Italian Renaissance art (Leon Battista Alberti).

A central aspect that was emphasized in the above study is the way that the labour relations and building management was altered during this period. During the Renaissance the issue of the master builder was questioned. Alberti was of the opinion that there should be a complete separation between the design and the building of an architectural project. Therefore we can partly trace the beginnings of the modern separation between architectural design, engineering and the craft of building to this view. In other words, this was the beginning of the specialization of the various disciplines involved in the overall process of the creation of a building from its inception. However, other architects like Brunelleschi did not believe in the total separation of the vasriodsu aspects of the design and building process. Nevertheless, Alberti's view become popular after the Industrial Revolution, when the balance shifted decisively towards independent architectural design separated from the implementation of the designer's vision

This period of architectural history is therefore characterized by increasing innovation and experimentation, coupled with a growing dominance of scientific knowledge and technology. At the same time the classical models of the past provided an inspiration and guidance as inspiration for these creator of these buildings. In this sense the work of Bramante and Michelangelo should also be seen as examples of the true spirit of the Renaissance in their creative versatility that extended over various disciplines. Both these architects were also accomplished artists but both also pursued various forms of scholarship and mathematics, which exemplifies the spirit and tenor of the Renaissance.

Conclusion ( 2): "Analysis of Four Scientific Revolution Building Projects: Their relationship with the Scientific Revolution Architectural Principles, Construction Technology and Master Builder Tradition"

The Baroque style of architecture is associated with the Scientific Revolution due to the relative abundance of wealth during this period, which in turn facilitated the creation of elaborate and extravagant architectural styles. This style of architecture was also linked to the status and predominance of the Catholic Church. In other words, many of the buildings during this period were designed to emphasise the wealth, status and influence of the Church as well as learning and scientific knowledge.

In this regard, Roman Baroque in particular was associated with the Catholic Church and is linked to religiously-motivated Italian Mannerism. As Hersey states, this architectural style was permeated with the representation of power and influence (Hersey). These buildings were essentially designed to display the power and influence of the Church. To this end fluid and impressive structures were created. A characteristic of this style was the replacement of the Renaissance idea of straight lines with curves to connote energy and vitality. The creation of spaciousness was also an important characteristic designed to emphasise religious significance (Cohen).

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1638-1646) is considered an iconic example of Baroque architecture (Vino Con Vista Italy Travel Guides and Events). Borromini's design also reflects the value of scientific exactness. To reiterate the view of one commentator; "In a space no larger than the base of one of the piers of St. Peter's Basilica, he created a church that is an intricate exercise in geometric perfection, with a coffered dome that seems to float above the curves of the walls" (San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane).

In the Roman Baroque style the architect Francesco Borromini is considered as one of the great innovators of architectural compositions from an aesthetic perspective. He is also credited with the innovative use of space in baroque architecture (Blunt). While many of the buildings that he worked on were relatively small, he succeeded in converting them into masterpieces of Baroque construction.

In contrast, English baroque has been described as being more secular, with a higher degree of classical inspiration. However, as Daniells states, this form of the Baroque style is not easy to categorize with finality (Daniells). Wellek uses the term 'restraint' to characterize English baroque (Wellek). With regard to the period of the Scientific Revolution, English Baroque drew inspiration from renaissance geometry. As in the Italian or Roman Baroque, there is a strong religious element that permeates all the designs.

The form of Baroque is exemplified by work of Sir Christopher Wren and buildings like St. Paul's Cathedral. The following summary by Soo is reiterated as it encapsulates the link between English baroque and the religious and scientific values of the period. "...as the result of a compromise between native medieval tradition and continental classicism, reconciled by creating a disunity between appearances and reality, the final design of St. Paul's is a clear reflection of social values and scientific philosophy in late-17th-century England" (462).

The style implemented by Wren also ensured that the interior was just as ornate and imposing as the exterior. This accentuated the sense of opulence and grandeur of the building, and increased its religious and national importance. To this end ceiling mosaics were added in 1890 by William Richmond after Queen Victoria complained that there was not enough colour in the cathedral (St. Paul's Cathedral) . The significance of the design controversy is summarized by Soo as follows: "the sequence of schemes for St. Paul's demonstrates Wren's empirical, almost arbitrary approach to design" (Soo 462).

It is also important to note that in terms of the master builder tradition, Sir Christopher Wren embodied and continued the principles of this tradition. He designed the cathedral and worked with a team to manage the actual on-site construction and was given the freedom to make design alterations throughout the process.

Similarly to the English Baroque, the French Baroque style reflects wealth and ostentation, coupled with the decorative dynamics of the Italian style. One of the differences in design and construction in French Baroque is the emphasis on certain aspects and areas of the buildings. Areas such as the roof of the building were, for example, deemphasized in the French style. In contrast to the dynamic and circular Italian buildings, the French style is described as being more static and is often described as being coldly ostentatious. However, a central facet of the French architectural style of this period is the close integration between outer and inner space, with the garden forming a centre of focus in many French buildings; which also reflects the classical-baroque compromise of northern Europe.

While all the these style of architectural design and construction differ to varying degrees they conform in terms of the essential aspects and opulence and religious intention, which remains the central theme of most of the significant buildings constructed during this period. The buildings are also unified by the emphasis on decorative effects and references to wealth and by the scientific underpinnings and associations of the buildings and their architectural methods and processes.

Conclusion ( 3): for "Analysis of Five Industrial Revolution Building Projects: Their relationship with the Industrial Revolution Architectural Principles, Construction Technology and Master Builder Tradition"

The buildings that have been discussed above are representative of the industrial and technological age and its influence on the architectural design and building of the period. The industrial revolution had profound and far-reaching consequences for architectural design and innovation on a number on interconnected levels. This included the methods and techniques of building as well as the materials that could be used in the process of building and construction. It also follows that these new and innovative technologies would have a dramatic impact of the way that buildings were designed and on creative architectural thinking. These and other concomitant aspects were augmented by new methods of transportation and building management which were all radically altered by the industrial revolution.

The industrial revolution ushered in the 'machine age' and machines facilitated a wide range of improved methods and processes in building as well as in the creation of building tools. As has been emphasised in the above analysis and discussion, one of the areas of construction and building that was to be irrevocably changed by the industrial revolution was building materials and the manufacture of building parts, which could be transported to the site. Furthermore, industrial mechanization also meant a revolution in the creation of building materials which could be processed much faster and more effectively than in the past. The industrial process also altered and to a great extent improved the organizational process and procedures and increased worker productivity.

In a broader context the industrial revolution changed the world and had a radical impact on society and culture. This impact was also deeply felt in the areas of architectural design, building and engineering. The link between industrialization, mechanization, the creation of new materials and economics explored in the discussion above, also indicates that the construction of large buildings became more economical in terms of materials and labour costs.

Therefore, the growth and development of industrial technologies and methods had a profound effect on architecture and building and resulted in a number of cardinal architectural innovations. These changes in method, procedure and materials also affected the aesthetic aspects of architecture. This can be seen in the use of extended and open planned buildings and progressive designs, which became possible through the use of materials such as glass and iron, and which in turn added new depth and dimensionality to architectural design. In this regard one could refer to combination of imaginative aesthetic design and the functionality that new materials and methods allowed in the creation of, for example, in the construction of the Menai Straits Suspension Bridge, Thames Tunnel and Eiffel Tower

Furthermore, materials such as glass, in combination with various building techniques, utilized natural light to create new aesthetic spaces. The Crystal Palace erected in London in 1851 out of prefabricated cast iron structure and plate glass panels is a good example of the use of glass to create a unique architectural and aesthetic sense of dimensionality and space.

The industrial revolution did not only change the way in which buildings were designed and built but also led to new and different types of construction. In the first instance, industrialization led to increased urbanization and a greater demand for city construction. A good example of these new types of construction is the tunnel shield for subaqueous tunnelling (Landow), as well as Iron suspension bridges and other types of large exhibition halls and towers that were conceived based on the new technology, materials, and engineering advances.

A central facet of this age is that the new and innovative materials that were developed as a result of industrial processes had a dramatic affect on the possible shape and size as well as the aesthetics of new buildings. One could refer in this regard to the Eiffel Tower where industrial materials allowed for greater extension and space. For example, technological advancements that led to elevator systems definitely played a part in the size of the Eiffel Tower, while the formula for steel would prove crucial to the many skyscrapers that dominated architecture in the 20th century.

A material that typifies the Industrial age is iron and its use in various industrial creations as well as building and contraction (Gillespie 4). The availability of cast iron and plate-glass led to the increasing creation of structures that incorporated large quantities of natural sunlight and space. One of the most influential of these structures was the aforementioned Crystal Palace. Cast iron reinforcements combined well with for the plate glass finishing (McRae). Furthermore, cast iron became cheaper with the advance of industrial techniques following the building of the innovative first cast iron Shropshire's Iron Bridge, in 1778. This led to further advances and the replacement of cast iron by steel reinforcements which allowed for more building and design flexibility (McEntee). By the end of the 19th century, cast-iron frames were largely replaced with wrought iron and those utilizing steel (McEntee).

The Iron Bridge serves as a good example of some of the central aspects of this period. Its construction in cast iron exemplifies the use of industrial material and technology at the time. This construction also paved the way for further constructions in cast-iron and also motivated later technological advances in materials, as well as in construction techniques. In this regard one should also refer to the construction of the famous Crystal Palace, which helped to encourage further construction projects in iron. The building of the Crystal Palace also exemplified the industrial age by the use made of prefabricated parts in its construction.

In brief, technological development in the Industrial Revolution radicalized construction. This age saw the development of new machines, materials, and work processes. As described above, the new machines harnessed and used natural energy such as coal and steam to power engines (Houston and Snell 473 -- 92). The power of engines produced far-ranging effects, which allowed for more rapid construction and further advancements during this era. This was also to lead to the era of specialization and to the application of scientific knowledge in the manufacturing process.

With the acquisition of readily available natural resources, the economic cost of building was greatly reduced. As noted above, one of the most important aspects of the industrial age in terms of building was the process of prefabricating parts for machines and buildings. This was to result in the possibility of interchangeable parts and the development of machine tools (Carlsson 91 -- 114). These advances were developed further by the replacement of steam power by electricity, which was to allow for progress in the efficient production of machined tools (Asif 1388 -- 413).

Therefore, in terms of architecture and building this meant that during this period construction was driven by new energies and new forms of commerce (Landow). An important aspect to consider is that while the Church and State had been the driving force behind architectural construction in the past, after the industrial revolution science, technology and automation became the main determining factors in all types of building. These changes also included other far-reaching aspects of architecture; as well as the way that work and labour was managed and controlled. All of these aspects as well as the less costly and more flexible material all contributed to the advances in architectural design and construction.

Conclusion ( 4) for "Analysis of Five Machine Age Building Projects: Their relationship with the Machine Age Architectural Principles, Construction Technology and Master Builder Tradition."

The Machine Age could also be referred to as the Modernist age in architecture. During the early Twentieth Century, Modernism and its various philosophical stances and tenets was a central and determining factor in the way that architectural constructions were designed and envisioned. Put somewhat simplistically, Modernism was a movement that extended beyond architecture and interrogated or questioned the ideals values and views of the past in every field and discipline, including architecture and design. Many ascribe the growth of the Modernism, as a form of questioning of society and art leading to new experimentation and innovation, to the decline of the previous norms of Western society after and a result of the First World War.

In Modernism aspects such as social needs and societal demands as well as functionality, as opposed to the more decorative aspects of architecture, began to be used as formative elements in the design and construction of buildings. However, as has been pointed out in the above discussion, there were many influences and variations in the trajectory of Modernist thinking and possibility that influenced architecture in a number of different ways; such as Art Nouveau and Art Deco.