Conclusion and synthesis of findings

Architecture

H-Conclusion

History of the Renaissance

Metaphorically speaking, the term Renaissance has been associated with rebirth and images of freedom, light, openness and creativity. These connotations stem from the historical origins of the Renaissance which took place approximately from the mid 15th to early 17th centuries and was a foundational period in European history. This period saw the emergence of a different intellectual as well as artistic view of life and reality. The creative sources of the classical era were revivified and there was a resurgence of a more interrogative and questioning attitude towards life and reality.

It should be pointed out that the Renaissance should not be understood in an historical sense as a sudden, radical break or a change for the Dark Ages that preceded it. Rather we should consider the renaissance as a period of questioning and reassessment of all aspects of life, in an intellectual, religious, economic, political and artistic sense. To generalize, we could say that is was a cardinal period of European history in which a wide range of interlinking social and philosophical views underwent a profound changed. As will be discussed in more detail in the sections below, these changes were the result of an extensive array of social, political as well as intellectual factors -- including, for instance, the growth of expansive cities, where ideas were shared and exchanged in contrast to the decline of the more isolated feudal cultures of the previous era.

Central of course to this period was the growth of technology and scientific thought which were also instrumental in opening up new horizons of possibility and promise; and which broke down previous norms and boundaries that affected the way people thought and perceived reality. There are many other factors that will be discussed, including the growth of humanist philosophy and the rise of the mercantile classes and international trade -- all of which added to the fundamental impetus towards new ideas and views of life.

This resurgent spirit of the Renaissance is clearly event in the arts and architecture of the period. Central to the spirit of the period was the growth of learning and education. This was coupled with a concomitant growth in technological development in many fields and disciplines, which in turn fuelled the innovative and creative minds of the period -- particularly with regards to art and architecture. One must also take into account that this period also includes the beginnings of printing, as well as various new political philosophies that had a wide-ranging impact an all aspects of society and architectural creation. A major part of the tapestry of the underlying cause was the Renaissance expansion of knowledge and learning. Furthermore, the art and architecture of this period reflected a form of aesthetics that was directly related to aspects such as the growth of larger as cities, a more educated population, and a growing technology that allowed states to concentrate on growth and improvement (Skinner 69).

The way in which the various elements and aspects impacted on the development of architectural design and building method will be the central focus of the following sections.

2.1.9 Conclusion

The above discourse covers a wide and very complex area of European history. The discussion has been focused on the history of architectural design, building methods and management, as well as the major architects and buildings during this time period. What becomes clear from the analysis is the way in which various interlinking cultural, social, philosophical as well as economic aspects influence and shaped the architectural vision of the architects, builders and designers of the time. What is also significant to note is that the revivification and the continuation of classical Greek and Roman design concepts and building methods were interwoven into the texture of the Renaissance mind and were used extensively in the designs of various important structures.

However, what is also of importance is the overarching understanding of the contribution that the Renaissance made to the historical development of Western culture. While debate may still rage in academic circles as to whether the Renaissance was an 'improvement' on Medieval European culture or not, what is undeniable is that the Renaissance expanded and shaped the European worldview and vision in all disciplines, and especially in the arts and architecture. One could even go further and state that this period of cultural, social and intellectual development by extension had a profound and critical effect on world culture and that its influence is still felt today through the various developments that were initiated during this period. In this regard one could refer to the fact that exploration became a central idea of the European mind during this era. This does not only refer to physical or geographical exploration but to exploration in terms of an expansion of the human mind and knowledge and the broadening of the boundaries of understanding and possibility. In this regard one could refer to a number of famous Italian Renaissance figures who played as prominent part in the colonization of the Americas, such as the Map maker Amerigo Vespucci. His resulting cartography led to the Christening of these new lands. (O'Gorman 106). The use of science and mathematics' were also instrumental in these discoveries. However, this physical expansionism was also reflected in the expansion of mind and consciousness in the European ethos and can in effect be more holistically understood as an intellectual and artistic exploration which was to become a central facet of the humanist view or philosophy of life. In essence Renaissance Humanism was an exploration of the possibilities of being human. It became a central philosophical factor in the Renaissance, which is still a dominant trend in contemporary society. An example is the design of Villa Almerico-Capran. Palladio showed the Renaissance emphasis on science and measurement by the fact that all the rooms were designed with mathematical precision according to his rules of architecture. These rules were published in the Quattro Libri dell'Architettura (Card).However, what is possibly even more significant in terms of the humanistic trend in this period is a certain aesthetic and philosophical stance in architecture. Palladio for instance emphasizes the humanist qualities of reason and rationality in his architectural designs. To reiterate, in an architectural sense his vision of humanism was linked to extending and developing the traditions of the past. "It was this expansion and reinvention of tradition that makes Palladio one of, if not the, most beloved of Renaissance architects"(Giovannini).

As is evident from the discussion in the sections above, this sense of exploration, discovery and new humanism discovery can also be applied to the arts and architecture. In architecture, for example, we see this sense of exploration in the expansion of possibilities of the way that structures, such as the dome could be used and developed in Renaissance buildings. A good example can be found in the work of Brunelleschi's, and particularly in the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore, which was one of the first structures to utilize this feature. The dome in this construction was seen as an extremely important architectural accomplishment. It also helped to garner both critical and industrial acclaim within the field of architecture for this feature. This structure is arguably one of the most renowned works of architecture erected during the Renaissance (Fletcher 719).

Central to the development of the Renaissance and the expansion of architectural know-how and building innovation was the importance of trade and commerce during this period -- and the way that increased trade and commerce contributed to new innovative ideas and opened up vistas and possibilities for the Renaissance mind. As has been noted, as the merchant class began to dominate in Europe, the feudal system, which had been a major social and cultural system of control, was replaced by commerce. The development of international trade was central in this regard. Renaissance Italy was one of the principle centers international trade. The emphasis on international trade would eventually pave the way for the global economic system that is an intrinsic part of our modern world.

There was a general view among artists at the time that that they were experiencing a culture that was new and different (Woods and Elmer). This led to the re-examination of the Roman and Greek heritage and important figures such as Leonardo da Vinci paved the way for modernity (Osborne). Another aspect that is also a modern legacy of the Renaissance is the multi-disciplinary focus, which is evident in the way that many architectural projects discussed above, incorporated a wide range of artists and artisans and in the building project. This was also a challenge to the master builder tradition and initiated a process of specialization within architecture.

As has been emphasized, central to this period was the expansion of knowledge. This can be linked to the growth of technological knowledge, often based on Roman and Greek methods from the past. Possibly, one of the most influential and far-reaching achievements of the Renaissance period was the discovery of the scientific method (Brotton). This methodology emphasized observable empirical evidence as the way towards discovering and understanding natural laws and true causes. It was the use of this method that was cardinal in the advancement and development of many disciplines, including architecture. Coupled with this was the invention of modern printing by Johannes Gutenberg (1398 -- 1468). His mechanized process of movable type allowed books to be mass produced. This invention laid the foundation for a modern knowledge-based economy (Eisenstein) and accelerated the accessibility of learning within society. This had a concomitant affect on the proliferation of knowledge and education, as well as communication; and as one commentator asserts, the printing press helped to produce a democratization of knowledge (Rheingold). This period of history was therefore pivotal in the creation of knowledge and vision, which would further advance the development and achievements of architecture.

2.2 History of the Scientific Revolution

2.2.0 Introduction

The period designated as the Scientific Revolution, which includes the 17th and 18th centuries, was characterized by the increasing prominence of reason and rationality thought in all aspects of culture and intellectuals thought. This period of history saw the advent of many influential works on theory and philosophy, such as Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica, that promulgated the centrality of human reason in the advancement of the arts and the sciences. This period of European history was also extremely important in terms of the way that the dominance of reason affected the 19th and 20th centuries, as well as in terms of the reaction to this dominance that occurred in the early and latter parts of the 20th century.

In essence the Scientific Revolution was initiated by a series of scientific discoveries that were founded on various Renaissance ideals and knowledge. This was supported by a firm belief in reason as a conduit of knowledge and a sense of humanistic inquiry which involved a "scholarly and initially reactive enthusiasm for classic culture, accompanied by creative writing in Latin on classic lines" (Wilkins). Central to this period of history was the ideal of education and learning as well as the interrogation of the norms, values and methods of the past. This was to lead to a more scientifically inclined and practical worldview that tended to deny the more religious perceptions of reality that had characterized the past. Coupled with this are many other aspects and concomitant variables that had a decisive influence in terms of architectural design and building.

In this light the development and relevance of the Baroque style of design, composition and construction takes precedence and will be examined in detail in the sections below. The connection with the Renaissance will also be examined in detail, as well as the causative factors that determine the evolution of the baroque style. In effect, the Baroque style was in many ways a stark contrast to the more pristine aesthetic of the Renaissance. Whereas Renaissance art was characterized by very clean lines and a harsh geometric intentionality, the Baroque form was far more free-flowing and dynamic, and even ostentatious at times (Saisselin). The link between this style in architecture and other aspects such as the economic wealth that also characterized this era of Scientific Revolution will also be examined in detail.

Cognisance will also be taken of the central thinkers and philosophers of this period and their impact on the development of architectural and construction principles and ideas. The work of Descartes, for example, is of paramount importance in this regard, as he attempted to shoe that truth lay in rational decision making and in the rational investigation of the world around us. The work of Sir Francis Bacon, who is credited with the introduction of inductive reasoning, will also be a focus of analysis.

2.2.9 Conclusion

The Scientific Revolution is characterized by two central and related modes of thought that were to influence the rationalistic tenor of thinking during this period. This refers to the view that nothing is random or occurs by chance and that all of nature is under the control of laws that can be discovered and understood by the use of scientific thought and methods. Therefore, truth was linked to deciphering the laws that controlled nature. The second and closely related aspect was reason, which was seen as the strongest and most appropriate method of understanding the truth. Through reason the laws of nature could be discovered.

Education and learning were therefore central factors of this period. The idea of the predominance of human reason also led to the interrogation and deconstructive analysis of the norms and values of the past. This led in turn to a loosening of the adherence to religion as well as the agrarian way of life of the past and the structures and institutions of the previous age began to lose their hegemonic status. In essence, it was believed that through science and rational scientific thought, human beings could make use of reason to attain an understanding of the workings of the world. Furthermore, the view put forward by thinkers like Descartes tended to show that the centre of existence and the secret to reality lay in rational decision making and in the rational investigation of the world around us. Descartes also compared man in terms of his autonomous reasoning ability to the other species, which led to the conclusion that mankind was intellectually superior to other life forms (Cunningham). As has been discussed above, this view had enormous ramifications for the view of life and reality in that it argued for a human -- centered scientific and rational world view as opposed to the more religious centered worldview of the past. This rational worldview was to be the foundation for the industrial revolution from the mid eighteenth to the late nineteenth centuries (Friedell).

As is evident from the discussion in this section, the Baroque style of architecture emerged as a result of the rational, scientific and humanistic trends of thought and was a reflection of these modes of thought. The baroque is seen as a point of transition away from the Medieval and Renaissance traditions (Buci-Glucksmann). As Rolbiecki states, modern conceptions of the individual's relationship to and responsibility for the state are products of this age. Dante's Inferno was a good example of Baroque thinking. In it, religious thoughts were important but not primary, and human nature is juxtaposed with a new definition of society (Rolbiecki).

It is also clear from the above discussion that while the Scientific Revolution was a movement that transcended the boundaries and restrictions of the past, it was also built on the foundation of previous knowledge and experience in that it drew from the ancient Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Medieval European and Islamic schools, and the Renaissance but the central point is that this was a new departure in the perception of the value of science and technology which led to unprecedented advances in knowledge (Butterfield). One could refer in this regard to the heliocentric view of universe. This view was extremely important in that it shifted attention from the earth to the sun as the centre of the universe, which in turn challenged previous religious sand philosophical viewpoints and placed science and technology in a more advantageous and positive light. One could in this regard refer to a great number of scientific and technological discoveries and breakthroughs that occurred during this period of history; for example, Wilhelm Schickard's creation of one of the first calculating machines in 1623; the invention of the barometer; the development of modern algebra and Napier's creation of logarithms. Furthermore, one could refer to many other examples, such as the mathematician John Hadley who built a Gregorian telescope with correctly shaped mirrors and the first parabolic Newtonian telescope (King 77). Major scientific figures during this period include Sir Francis bacon who is credited with the introduction of inductive reasoning in his publication Novum Organum (1620). This was extremely important in that it emphasized the view that in order to understand nature and the world around us, data must be collected using measurable and observable evidence. Bacon also believed in rigorously testing hypotheses, which was linked to the influence of rigorous scientific rationality which focused on conclusions from the data presented.

This new faith and belief in the validity and power of human reason and science had a very deep and profound impact on the development of all the disciplines, including developments in architecture. An example discussed above is the Palace of Versailles. The baroque style of this construction was extremely flamboyant and luxurious, which also reflects the feeling of power and wealth that was part of the humanistic mode of thought and the belief in the ability of mankind. Central to this building is the emphasis on order and geometric design, which can be seen in the gardens. This again reflects the methods of science, human control and reason as fundamental aspects that shaped architectural style during this period.

Economics also played a vital role in the development of architecture and other disciplines during this period. As has been noted, the economic wealth that occurred as a result of the Scientific Revolution led to flamboyance, elaborate and extravagant artistic and architectural style -- Baroque. It is also important to note that while Baroque architecture is generally ascribed to Italian architects, most notably, Gianlorenzo Bernini and Francesco Borromini, the Baroque style was also dominant in many other European countries. As might also be expected in the age of science and technology, many new construction techniques were developed, such as the employment of unique mechanical devices; the innovative techniques in brick manufacture and laying; and the practices used in the supply and the working of lime, plaster and freestone, all of which advanced the field of construction technology. The eras of the master builder was also on the wane and advances in technology led to more specialization and the division of labor in many instances, such as the separation between designer and builder. In essence, an understanding of the era of the veneration and reason is essential in order to understand the subsequent developments and views of the nature and role of architecture.

2.3 History of the Industrial Revolution

2.3.0 Introduction

The Industrial revolution, which took place in from the middle of the 18th century until the late 19th centuries, was a turning point in Western culture and transformed the social, economic as well as the artistic and architectural environment at the time. Furthermore, the legacy of this social phenomenon had far-reaching implications in terms of the demands and needs of architectural design. It also provided a vast array of technical possibilities for building. An aspect that will be a central part of the discussion in this section is the focus on the way that industrial technology and methods of production altered the architectural process and to a large extent determined and allowed for more adventurous building concepts and ideas.

Fundamentally, during this era the use of steam power and subsequent creation of factories and the news ways in which technology was used led to enormous changes in manufacturing process as well as in the types of materials used for building (Lorenzen). Europe's socioeconomic and cultural conditions were transformed (More). Technology introduced mechanised production systems that replaced manual labour and the factory and the large-scale industrial organization altered the physical as well as the social and cultural landscape. Workers gravitated to the industrial cities and the era of the purely agrarian culture in effect came to an end. One should also bear in mind that the Industrial Revolution was a result of antecedent discoveries in science and technology during the era of the Scientific Revolution and the dominance of human reason and scientific rationality. This also relates to the important issue of humanism and its development as a central cultural and philosophical trend during this period.

Therefore, in many ways the Industrial Revolution was responsible for various vital components of our modern world; including global expansion and modern technological and other innovations. These scientific aspects are clearly evident in the design and building of constructions such as the Crystal Palace and the Eiffel Tower, among others. As will be discussed, the ethos of the Industrial Revolution has to be understood in a holistic context. There are many variables such as economics and politics that affected and impacted the various trends and developments during this era. This also includes aspects such as radical changes in labour and management -- all of which are factors that affected the history and development of architectural design and the process of building. Among the many aspects that will be analysed in the following sections, the dominance of the rational and scientific method will be seen as a primary determining factor that impacted central aspects of architectures at the time; for example, the creation of new materials, prefabricated elements and a variety of opportunities for innovative opportunities for architectural design form an essential part of the this period of history from an architectural and engineering point-of-view. The relevance of the Master Builder Tradition will also be a point of focus in terms of the understanding of the impact of the industrial revolution on the history of architecture.

2.3.9 Conclusion

It is not too much to state that the Industrial revolution changed the world in a number of crucial ways and dramatically impacted the arts and architecture. A central factor that enabled the Industrial revolution to bring about changes was economic viability. In other words, the use of machines and technology led to the development of resources and methods of construction and organization that had previously not been possible. This period also led to radical changes in the forms and types of materials that were used in architectural constructions. In essence, as Moore states, Europe's socioeconomic and cultural conditions were transformed (More). Among these was the use of iron as well as glass in buildings such as the Crystal Palace.

The above discussion also emphasizes the centrality of technology and the way that technological discoveries advanced the drive towards industrialization. This refers in particular to the move from human and animal-based technology to the use of machines. This change to machines was promoted by various scientific advances, which also meant more organized control and management than had been the case in the past. What is also clear for the above discussion and analysis is that in order to comprehensively understand the Industrial Revolution and its impact on architecture and building, one has to consider the various factors and variables holistically. In other words, one has to view the different events and elements that were dominant during this period in terms of their multivalent impact on each other. For example, while technology was a major driving force in the creation of machines and in the invention of new materials and methods, this should be seen in conjunction with other important variables such as economics and politics.

There was considerable political transformation as a result of the changes in social during the Industrial Revolution. Furthermore, these political changes were linked to the fact that during this period there was an increased demand from the populace for greater autonomy and for more freedom from governmental authority. One should also bear in mind the various social revolutions that occurred in different regions during this period and which are linked in many ways to the ethos of the Industrial Revolution; for example, the American Revolution against their colonial occupiers and the revolution in France. These social and cultural changes were linked to the same motivating factors that could be discerned in the advance of scientific and technological rationality; namely, the view that mankind through reason and innovation could overcome and free themselves from any previous obstacles and barriers to progress. This was of course to lead to our modern democratic philosophies.

One should also not forget that the Industrial revolution was in many ways a product of the Enlightenment. This cultural and philosophical movement that took place mainly during the 18th century promoted the ability of mankind to achieve and triumph in the face of adversity and was also largely responsible for the decline in religiosity and a more faith-based approach to life. The marginalization of religion and religious views on reality also tended to promote the importance of science and technology as the intellectual tools whereby mankind could achieve its full potential. This spirit was carried over to the world of technology and industry and is pivotal in understanding the attitudes, views and innovations that occurred during the Industrial Revolution.

Most important of all was the fact that the impetus and the driving force behind the Industrial Revolution was a search for new and creative ideas that would increase human knowledge and allow for more control of the social as well as the physical environment. The spirit led to positive developments in areas such as medical technology, as well as in the improvement of working and living conditions. It is this same progressive and challenging spirit that we find revealed in the discussion and analysis of the architectural projects and buildings of the time. One thinks immediately of the design and construction of the Eiffel Tower in this regard.

The ingenuity and spirit that permeated architecture during the Industrial era is exemplified in the design of this structure. The Eiffel Tower was the world's tallest structure at the time. The spire of the Eiffel Tower is 324m high; the roof of the structure is just over 300m and the third level is 273m from ground level (King 175). The Tower was also a feat of scientific construction and engineering. As Echols states, "...the tower was designed so that the structure applied a foundation load no greater than that of a person sitting in a chair per square unit of measure" (King 229). The triumph of science can be seen in the way that the problem of wind was solved by the designer: "Eiffel resolved this potential problem by providing diagonal framing within the structure and by incorporating a system of windbreaks" (King 229). The rational and mathematical precision of the construction of the Tower is underlined by commentators (King 229).

One also should also highlight the design and construction of the Crystal Palace; for example the height of the interior of this building was approximately 39 meters high; the building's length was approximately 564 meters. The width was approximately 139 meters and the palace encompassed 990,000 square feet (Hunt Martin and Rosenwein 685). A facet that stands out in the construction and which typifies the value of industrial and technological development for architecture is the fact that the Crystal Palace was designed and built with the aid of prefabricated parts. Prefabricated parts were made in factories and could easily be disassembled and taken elsewhere, which allowed for a new mobility and flexibility in the construction process. They were also relatively easy to assemble ( Kostoff, 594). The Crystal Palace also showed evidence of another unique design which can be ascribed to advances in technological know-how. This refers to an internal skeleton consisting of wrought- and cast-iron beams and stanchions. The designer's use of iron materials helped to usher in the iron age of construction, and was widely replicated by a number of architects and structure in the ensuing years.

The proliferation of new and innovative knowledge and learning cannot be overestimated as a motivating force during the Industrial Revolution. What is also clear is that this knowledge was largely scientific and embodied the principles of human reason and rationality. In this respect many journals and books were produced that furthered the spirit of scientific and technological enterprise. This refers to publications on natural history such as Histoire naturelle des insects by Achille Guenee in 1852s, which promulgated scientific principles and methods. These publications were vital in disseminating various scientific developments that would influence and shape the Industrial Revolution.

2.4 History of the Machine Age

2.4.0 Introduction

The Machine Age is understood as the age that was the immediate precursor and initiator of our contemporary social and cultural worldview. This period of history, which covers the period between the end of the 19th century to the middle of the last century, is an era that is often discussed and critiqued in both positive and negative terms. On the one hand, it is seen from a purely technological and innovative perspective as an era of amazing technological and creative growth in many fields and areas of human advancement. On the other hand the use of science and technology can also be seen in a more negative and questionable light in terms of the way the effect human and social values and norms. In other words it was a time of intellectual and artistic growth and progress but also a time in which the direction and intentions of society were being crucially questioned and interrogated.

In this light one would have to consider the fact that it was during this period that technology was used extensively in two world wars; and which led to a radical questioning of the norms and values of 'civilized' society. This in turn led to our modern era in that this questioning of the past and the present norms of society also new views and perceptions of art and architecture and the role that architecture played within society. This period also saw many changes in other fields, such as economics and politics.

The Machine Age was in essence a continuation of the scientific and technological discoveries and innovations of the past; which included the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, as well as the era of Scientific Revolution. However, what becomes clear is that during the Machine Age there was an acceleration of technological and scientific innovation, which had a concomitant effect on all aspects of society. One has therefore to consider architecture and building in the context of a great number of interlinking views and events during this time period. For example, the effects of the Great Depression and the development of many new political and social views have to be taken into account in understand the forces and influences on the architectural principle and methods of the time. A central aspect will be discussed is the link between architectural design and construction principles during his era and the tenets of Modernism. This is closely linked to a dominant ethos and set of values that was a central characteristic of this era. These aspects will be explored and analysed in the following sections, with the focus on the developments in architecture and building and the way that the Machine Age contributed to the rise of architectural design and building methods and processes.