Filippo Brunelleschi's revolutionary dome of Florence Cathedral

Architecture

H-Project

Dome of Florence Cathedral (1420 -- 1436)

The Dome of Florence Cathedral (a.D. 1420-36) has been described as a "miracle" of design which is in essence a blend of Renaissance and Gothic architectural building aspects. The dome itself covers an octagonal apartment which is 138 ft. 6 ins, in diameter, and is raised on a drum, with circular windows to light the interior. (Italian Renaissance -- Florence)

It is pointed in form and consists of an inner and outer shell.

The original designer of the building was Arnolfi di Cambio. However, the architect who became renowned for the construction of the dome of the cathedral was Filippo Brunelleschi. His importance is also ascribed to the fact that he was the "... first to establish the new standards in architecture." (Filippo Brunelleschi. Cathedral Dome, Florence) Brunelleschi received the commission to plan and build the dome after winning a design competition. He competed against other Florentine artists and architects, including Lorenzo Ghiberti. Work on the dome began in 1420 and was completed in 1436.

The significance of the building of the dome of the cathedral also refers to the changed and more professional status of the architect in society. This in turn can also be related to the newly discovered scientific aspects of architecture. The dome that Brunelleschi's created is acknowledged as "…the most ambitious architectural and engineering projects of its time." (Florence Duomo History - History of Florence's Cathedral)

However, it should also be noted that the construction of the cathedral's dome had been halted before Brunelleschi submitted his architectural design. The reason for this was that the construction of a dome of this size was deemed to be impossible without the use of flying buttresses. (Florence Duomo History - History of Florence's Cathedral) However, this problem was eventually overcome by "Brunelleschi's understanding of some of the key concepts of physics and geometry." (Florence Duomo History - History of Florence's Cathedral)

As noted, central to the plan for the dome were the inner and outer shells, joined with a ring and rib system. Brunelleschi's design also employed a "...herringbone pattern to keep the bricks of the dome from falling to the ground." (Florence Duomo History - History of Florence's Cathedral). Importantly, these construction techniques were seen as unique and even architecturally revolutionary during Brunelleschi's time.

Furthermore, what was also unique about the construction of the dome was that Brunelleschi was not trained as a carpenter or mason but was in fact a goldsmith and clock maker. Even more amazing, states Gartner, was how he proposed to build the dome: "...the incredible feature of his proposed solution was that he intended to build the dome senza armadura, without scaffolding" (Gartner 86). The technique for doing this was almost inconceivable at the time. Others had proposed wooden scaffolding or stone towers to support the work. Nor could Brunelleschi prove by pointing to previous experience that he could accomplish this feat. Construction began on Brunelleschi's dome on 7 August 1420. It was consecrated on 30 August 1436.

1.2. Design

It was largely Brunelleschi's knowledge of Roman construction principle that permitted him to solve the unique engineering and architectural problem that the dome presented. (Gardner 440) the design was required to deal with the various seemingly overwhelming problem of construction of a dome. In the first instance there was the problem of the space that had to be spanned; which was too wide to permit traditional wood centering as part of the construction. Buttressed walls were not possible to support the dome. ( Gardner 440) Brunelleschi overcame these problems in a unique way. As Gardner states, he "…not only discarded traditional building methods and devised new ones but also invented much of the machinery for the job." (Gardner 440) He designed the dome around a pointed arch or ogival, which is more stable in that it reduced any outward thrust that the dome might present at its base. (Gardner 440) the weight of the dome was also minimized by the design of the thin double shell around a skeleton of 24 ribs. (Gardner 440) it should be noted that this was the first time in architectural and construction history that a design of this nature had been achieved. He also "…anchored the structure at the top with a heavy lantern, built after his death but from his design." (Gardner 440)

What makes this structure so important therefore in terms of design is its octagonal vault form that stands without buttresses and transverse chains. It is a combination of Gothic and Renaissance styles, combining innovation and tradition. As Gartner states, by contrast with earlier domes "...the heavy Roman cupolas, set into massive masonry supports, have nothing in common with the lofty, gently curving dome in Florence" ( Gartner 78). What Brunelleschi achieved in essence was to free the cupola supports from the wall structure and make them into a separate framework, which prepared the way for the twenty-four-ribbed structure of the cathedral dome. Thus, the system of struts supporting the cupola is transformed into a self-supporting skeleton of ribs. This style of dome definitively ended the medieval period of architecture and "...with it the 'monumental' form of modern architecture was born. . . ." (Gartner 77). Thus Brunelleschi's edifice has to be seen as the 'modern' building which marked the end of the medieval period" (Gartner 77). It influenced architecture inestimably, and was taken up at St. Peter's and in many American capitol buildings.

When the dome was complete the Pope consecrated the finished Cathedral on Easter Sunday, 1436. "The dome towered majestically over the city of Florence, a triumph for the Florentine people and the city's most powerful family." (Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance . Renaissance. Brunelleschi | PBS)

1.4. Significance

The innovative design that was exhibited in this construction was to lead to unique and progressive developments in the field of architecture. This is evidenced by the following quotation; "This manner of thinking through the project as a whole and determining every aspect of its structure, construction, and aesthetics was very different from the traditional ways of the masons and was to some extent the birth of the modern architectural profession." (Castex 52)

Brunelleschi's design and building expertise was also innovative in other ways as well. His creation of a new division of labor challenged the tradition medieval master builders who were previously in charge of design and construction. In a very real sense therefore, Brunelleschi's construction of the Dome of Florence Cathedral was the beginning of Renaissance architecture, both in terms of its design of structures and its execution using new technologies. Gartner states that, "There can be no doubt that the early Renaissance begins with his buildings" (1125).

2. Facade of Santa Maria Novella (1456 -- 1470 AD)

2.1. Background

In 1456 Giovanni Rucellai and his family commissioned Leon Battista Alberti to design and execute a new facade for the unfinished exterior of the Dominican church of Santa Maria Novella. ((Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472)) the background to this church begins in 1219 when a number of Dominican friars led by Fra Giovanni da Salerno came from Bologna and obtained the church of Santa Maria delle Vigne as their Florentine dwelling. The building of the much larger church which is evident today was begun in 1279 according to a design by two Dominican converses, Fra Sisto and Fra Ristoro. (Santa Maria Novella - Church and Cloisters). Orlandi provides the following sequence of events (Orlandi 6 -- 7). The original church on the site dated from the ninth century AD. It was enlarged in AD 1094 by the patronage of the church canons. In November 1221 it was ceded to Giovanni of Salerno, who wanted to build a new church.

While he did not design the building itself, the architect Alberti created the facade. ( Chiu 97) the original facade was begun near the beginning of the fourteenth century but was left as incomplete around AD 1350. It comprised of "...six arch tombs (avelli) and three Gothic portals, as well as the marble squares and arches up to the level of the frieze." ( Chiu 97)

The Papal court resided in Santa Maria Novella in the period between AD 1434 and 1443. This was the period just before Alberti was commissioned to design the new facade. Orlandi states that "Between 1458 and 1470, Leon Battista Alberti, commissioned by Giovanni di Paolo Rucellai (whose name can be seen in large letters below the tympanum), designed the magnificent central portal (executed by Giovanni di Bertino) and the upper part of the facade, admirably harmonizing the pre-existent Gothic elements with the new Renaissance style." Orlandi 4) Among the design aspects that are attributed to Alberti was the hiding of the sloping roofs of the aisles with two up-turned volutes, which was the first examples of this architectural motif. The whole facade merges the lower Gothic elements with the upper Renaissance elements. ( Chiu 97) These and other design aspects will be discussed in more detail in the following section

2. 2. Design

Alberi's architectural style has been described as follows: "Alberti was above all an artist of facades - the creator of exteriors that radically altered the appearance of a building but did not directly express its internal organization as an organic, living system." ( Chiu 97)

With regard to the style and design this piece of architecture it is based on the triumphal arch, which shows evidence of a Greco-Roman influence. ( Chiu 97) the various architectural elements can be described as "...a temple-like pedimented upper story with triangular panels and scrolls on a broad base" ( Chiu 97) Furthermore, " Disciplined classical shapes with Florentine ornamentation are fitted into a medieval structure. There are possible influences of the Florentine Baptistery of San Giovanni and di Cambio's original design for Florence Cathedral." ( Chiu 97)

Alberti was also responsible for the design of both the top section of the facade and the main doorway from 1456-70. The lower half with green columns was begun in 1300 and completed by 1360. (the Facade of Santa Maria Novella)

The central problem that Alberti faced in designing this facade was that the design has to "....accommodate wall tombs already built into the lower facade and to construct a modern facade that would still be in keeping with the 13th-century Gothic structure." (Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472)) it is important to note that, in terms of the architectural style of the period in Italy, the facade was intended as a public space which fronted the church and "… not as necessarily revealing anything about the interior." (Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472))

Another design and construction problem was the fact that the two levels of the church were of different heights. Alberti solved this by tying them together visually with the use of the ornate scrolls on opposite ends. (the Facade of Santa Maria Novella) Alberti also used the example of the Romanesque church of San Miniato al Monte as an inspiration for his design of the facade.

Other noteworthy aspects of the design are the widening of the proportions of the facade with pillars of branded white and green marble, which are paired with Corinthian columns. (Chiu 97) Importantly, the portal was widened to remind one of the Pantheon with its "...fluted plaster door frame and coffered entrance vaults with rosettes." ( Chiu 97)

In general, it has also been suggested that in terms of original design, Leon Battista Alberti took his cue from a pre-Gothic medieval design, particularly that of San Miniato al Monte. From the Romanesque model, he "…designed a small, pseudo-Classical, pediment-capped temple front for the upper part of the facade and supports it with a broad base of pilaster-enframed arcades that incorporate the six tombs and three doorways of the extant Gothic building." (Santa Maria Novella Church) Alberti completed the design by "... adding a triangular tympanum, as well as creating the two beautifully inlaid lateral volute or scrolls to hide the slope of the roof that covers the side naves." (the facade of S.Maria Novella)

2.3. Construction

The building was constructed largely without the supervision of Alberti. Chiu states that "...according to a dedication written by Fra Giovanni di Carlo, a friar at the church, to Cristoforo Landino, Alberti designed the marble inlay on the facade, and this was executed by Giovanni di Bertino, a mason skilled in this art" (Chiu 99). Various wooden models that were designed by Alberti were used by the masons with the details that they required for the construction. Furthermore, this method would have "...allowed Giovanni to employ different masons for each project, when he was ready to build. This may be a factor that has contributed to the uncertainty surrounding Alberti's role in Giovanni's projects." ( Chiu 97) the facade was therefore completed between 1458 and 1470 by Giovanni di Bertino, using Alberti's designs.

2.4. Significance

This facade is renowned for its highly stylized architectural beauty. As one commentator notes; "The decoration, in black and white marble, of the facade of Santa Maria Novella can perhaps be considered to be the most beautiful of all the Florentine churches." (the facade of S.Maria Novella) Alberti's achievement in continuing the project of this facade lies largely in his integration of the already existing medieval elements by "developing them along a classical design." (the facade of S.Maria Novella) Above all, the central significance of this facade is that it "…is a perfect example of the harmony found in the arts in the early Italian Renaissance." (the facade of S.Maria Novella) Alberti also contributed to the development of art as well as architecture. He wrote a number of books including a work entitled, on Painting. In general it is acknowledged that he was an influential figure in changing the direction of Italian Renaissance art. (the facade of S.Maria Novella)

3. St. Peter Basilica (1506 -- 1626)

3.1. Background

The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican commonly known as Saint Peter's Basilica is a Late Renaissance church located within Vatican City and has the largest interior of any Christian church in the world. Banister Fletcher, the renowned architectural historian, refers to it as "...The greatest of all churches of Christendom." (Fletcher 719) the symbolism and importance of this building relates to the burial site of Saint Peter, the chief apostle, who was buried in 64 a.D. The church on this site was completed in about 349 a.D. (St. Peter's Basilica)

However, by the 15th century the basilica was in poor repair, prompting Pope Nicolas V to initiate the restoration and enlargement of the church after plans by Bernardo Rossellino. (St. Peter's Basilica) Pope Julius II laid the first stone of the new basilica in 1506.

It is important to note at the outset that St. Peters Basilica is the end product of the labors of many architects and builders, rather than the result of the endeavors of a single person. As Bonde, Mark, and Robison (1993) write, "The first proposal to replace the old basilica came in the 1450s during the pontificate of Nicholas V." (Bonde, Mark and Robison 129) it incorporated the tomb where St. Peter's body was believed to be laid. The building took almost the entire sixteenth century and into the seventeenth century to complete.

The motivation behind the construction of this building can be traced to the desire of Pope Sixtus V for a new symbol to magnetize the Catholic world. To this end he consulted with the first main architect Domenico Fontana (1543 -- 1607). There was little positive outcome from this partnership in terms of building. The construction then became the task of Pope Julius who employed the architect Donato Bramante (1444 -- 1514). Bramante's plan for the structure was a Greek cross superimposed on a square with a central hemispherical dome supported on four massive piers. He experimented with Roman concrete for the piers and arches (Nuttgens 184). The first problem he encountered was an inability to move St. Peter's tomb. As a result, Bramante's church had to be grafted onto the earlier Constantinian basilica "by sacrificing one of the apsed arms of the cross… to the east." (Kostof 503)

3.2. Design

Pope Julius' ideas to create the most important building in Christendom led to a competition and it was the design of Donato Bramante that was selected. This design was based on the image of a Greek cross, which featured a large central dome surrounded by smaller domes. (St. Peter's Basilica) the design was intended to symbolize divine perfection. (Steiger) in more detail, Bramante's design was praised for various aspects; such as the top of his Corinthian columns. ( Steiger) Furthermore, in vaulting he "...invented a method of construction using a framework of stout beams, on which his friezes and foliage decoration were carved and then covered with castings in gypsum." ( Steiger)

As noted, the design of the building was influenced by a number of architects. For example, Pope Leo X appointed the painter Raphael to the post of chief architect. However, as Steiger notes; "For several years Popes and architects succeeded each other with little effect & #8230;" (Steiger)

The most significant architect and designer to complete the building was Michelangelo, who was appointed as chief architect in 1547. Michelangelo was 71 years of age at the time and remained as chief architect until his death. In terms of design he retained the Greek cross and the central dome from Bramante's original design. His design was however more compact and smaller in dimension than Brabante. He also "...unified the isolated parts into a perfectly connected whole, with details better scaled to a colossal interior 450 feet long and 450 feet wide." ( Steiger) Furthermore, he proposed a portico of 14 free-standing columns at the end of the eastern arm. These columns would be almost 100 feet high and 7 feet in diameter.

Figure: Michelangelo's Design

( Source: http://www.concreteconstruction.net/images/St.%20Peter's%20Basilica_%20Climax%20Building%20of%20the%20Renaissance_tcm45-348184.pdf)

Central to his design was the dome. It was designed as two shells and was intended to be higher and lighter than the dome proposed by Branante. Brabante had proposed a single shell design. When Michelangelo died the building was largely complete. However, the eastern arm of the Greek cross as well as the dome above the cylindrical drum was not entirely finished. (Steger) the dome was subsequently completed by Giacoma Della Porta and Domenico Fontana in 1587-90. (Steiger)

There were a number of architectural changes which were required to complete the construction. Modemo extended the eastern arm of the cross in order to increase the interior space. (Steiger) Other additions were made to the original design. These included "… the free-standing elliptical Colonnades that encircle the Piazza San Pietro." (Steiger)

3.3. Construction

The construction of this building took decades to complete. The actual historical statistics show that the construction from inception to its final completion took a total of 176 years, from 1450 to 1626 AD. As might be expected, the cost of such an important construction was enormous. (Basilica of St. Peter)

In terms of construction the basilica's dome is the world's largest measuring 42m in diameter and reaching 138 meter high. The interior, which includes 45 altars, was decorated by a number of famous artists: for example, the Pieta by Michelangelo and the papal altar by Bernini. (St. Peter's Basilica) the proportions of the building are as follows: height of the nave, 151.5 feet; width of the same at the entrance, 90.2 feet; at the tribune, 78.7 feet; length of the transepts in interior, 451 feet; entire length of the basilica including the vestibule, 693.8 feet. The measurements of the interior diameter of the dome vary somewhat, being generally computed at 137.7 feet, exceeding the dome of the Pantheon by a span of 4.9 feet. The surface area of St. Peter's is 163,182.2 sq. feet. (Basilica of St. Peter)

Among the many innovations that took place in the construction process was the introduction of movable scaffolding for centering the arches. ( Steiger)

This construction involved as great number of workmen and artisans as well as master craftsmen and Brabante was recognized for his management of the workforce that was employed in the construction. It should also be noted that Bramante revived a concrete mixture for the friezes and the cornices previously used by Roman builders. Concrete, which is the equivalent of contemporary reinforcement concrete, was used by Michelangelo to construct the dome. (Vatican researchers examine construction of St. Peter's Basilica dome)

3.4. Significance

James Lees-Milne describes Saint Peter's Basilica as "a church with a unique position in the Christian world." (Lees-Milne 12) the significance of the church is largely due its symbolic importance as the burial site of Saint Peter, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. Its religious significance also includes the fact that is an important place of pilgrimage with many historical associations; it is also associated with many famous architects and artists, such as Michelangelo.

4. La Rotonda (1567 -- 1591)

4.1. Background

This construction of Villa Almerico-Capra, or Villa Capra, also known as the Rotonda was begun in 1550. This Renaissance villa outside Vicenza was designed by Andrea Palladio. This was one of more than twenty villas designed by Palladio. (Villa Almerico-Capra) the construction is renowned as a classic of the Pantheonic type, with its symmetrical quartet design. (Villa Capra, or Villa Rotund). It is also included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.

The inspiration for the building arose when a priest named Paolo Almerico decided to build a retirement house in Vizenza in 1565. Inspired by the Panetheon, Palladio designed the villa, which become of the great legacies of architecture. Palladio had a strong classical background in architecture and had studied the principles of classical architecture when he worked on new additions for a villa owned by Gian Giorgio Trissino, a leading scholar of the time. (Villa Almerico-Capra)

Palladio is often described as the most influential and most copied architect in the Western world. He created carefully proportioned, pedimented buildings that "…became models for stately homes and government buildings in Europe and America." (Villa Almerico-Capra)

4.2. Design

In the first instance, unlike many other Palladio's villas, this villa was designed for a suburban rather than a rural environment. As noted, the design emphasized symmetry. This was accomplished by having a square plan which contained four facades, each with a projecting portico. (Villa Capra "La Rotond" ) the basis of Pallidio's architectural designs is described in one study as follows:

Many of his Veneto villas were symmetrically massed, with equal wings flanking a central temple-fronted residential block. Such simplicity was appropriate for the economy of these working farms, but since they belonged to people with social status and cultural aspirations, Palladio, through restrained decoration, enhanced these homes.

(Venice's Palladian Architecture)

In line with the above, the essential design of Villa Almerico-Capra is described succinctly in one commentary as follows: "The whole ?s contained within an imaginary circle which touches each corner of the building and centers of the porticos. The name La Rotonda refers to the central circular hall with its dome. (Villa Capra "La Rotond" ) in other words, the basic design is not strictly a 'rotonda' but could be more aptly be described as a design based on "…the intersection of ? square with ? cross." ( Villa Capra "La Rotonda" ) what should be noted in terms of the overall design is that Palladio ensured that all the rooms were designed with mathematical precision according to his rules of architecture. These rules were published in the Quattro Libri dell'Architettura. ( Card)

The significance of the design can be related to a certain aesthetic and philosophical stance in architecture. This refers largely to the humanist values that were central to Renaissance architecture. Palladio strongly emphasizes the humanist qualities of reason and rationality in his architectural designs. In an architectural sense his vision of humanism was linked to extending and developing the traditions of the past. "It was this expansion and reinvention of tradition that makes Palladio one of, if not the, most beloved of Renaissance architects." (Giovannini)

4.3. Construction

The actual building began in 1566, with the rough works ending in about 1571. The villa was already inhabitable by 1569, but still incomplete. It was in fact completed by Vincenzo Scamozzi, who succeeded Palladio as architect after 1580. (VILLA ALMERICO CAPRA CALLED LA ROTONDA) Palladio passed away in 1580 and Scamozzi, was employed by the new owners to oversee the completion.

In terms of construction there are four identical facades. These have ionic pronaos of six columns reproduced at each side of the villa. Palladio's design provides for the roofing of the central hall with a semispherical dome; but, as the work was taken up by Vincenzo Scamozzi, this design was altered. One of the changes that he made to the building and to the original design by Palladio was the modification of the two-storey centre hall. (Villa Capra "La Rotonda"1591) Palladio's design also had the building covered by a high semi-circular dome but Scamozzi replaced this design with an oculus. The dome was ultimately completed with a cupola. (Villa Capra "La Rotonda")

It is noteworthy that although the construction of the villa appears to be completely symmetrical, is has certain 'deviations' which are designed to, …allow each fa-cade to com-plement the sur-roun-ding land-scape and to-po-gra-phy. Hence there are va-ria-ti-ons in the fa-ca-des, in the width of steps, re-tai-ning walls, etc. In this way, the sym-me-try of the ar-chi-tec-ture al-lows for the asym-me-try of the land-scape, and crea-tes a see-mingly sym-metri-cal whole."

(Villa Capra - Villa Rotonda - Villa Almerico)

The building is also decorated by the work of many well-known artists. The ceiling is enhanced by frescoes by Alessandro Maganza and paintings by Louis Dorigny on the side walls. (Villa Capra Valmarana)

4. 4. Significance

This building is considered an architectural masterpiece and has been extremely influential in terms of architectural progress and development. One of the aspects that makes this construction so unique and appealing lies in the fact that Palladio "…fused both obvious and arcane influences to create one of the most admired and imitated building types the world has ever seen." ( Venice's Palladian Architecture) His designs still influence contemporary architects. A major part of this influence is his theoretical work on architecture. In 1570 he published the Four Book of Architecture, which was to "…inspire generations of architects." (Venice's Palladian Architecture). His treatise was published in an English translation in 1715. The impact of his work can be seen by the fact that "American architecture felt the impact in the late 18th and early 19th century, as seen in Thomas Jefferson's Monticello." (Andrea Palladio: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004) Hi work also influenced architecture for more than two centuries, especially in Northern Europe. This was to lead to two period of Pallanism in England: " in the first half of the 17th century Inigo Jones converted English architecture to the Italianate Renaissance by introducing Palladio's style, seen best in the Banqueting Hall, Whitehall, London, and the Queen's House, Greenwich." (Andrea Palladio: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004)