Project management history across twelve periods of Western civilization

¶ … history of project management in twelve periods of Western history. This involved the exploration of six topic areas that would provide insight into the history and evolution of project management. These included the following areas: cultural environment; scientific environment; general management; construction technology and the Master Builder Tradition

The research into these areas led to the process of placing contemporary project management in its historical perspective and comparing this perspective to the modern state of this science. This process also led to a number of recommendations that were a central outcome of the study. Among these was the recommendation that further research should be undertaken into the architectural principles of each historical period, with particular emphasis on the impact of the economic environment on each period. In essence this process led to the conclusion that the history of project management is more than just about the history of projects or the history of managing projects. It is about understanding the behavior of project leaders in history and the choices they made when applying areas of expertise to project activities.

2. Briefly describe the differences between the qualitative and quantitative approaches

Quantitative methodologies tend to emphasize measurement and statistics and are usually associated with precise mathematical and statistical extrapolations from research data. Quantitative methodologies have been defined as promoting research that is aimed at "…determining the relationship between one thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population" (Hopkins). Quantitative research centers on quantifying relationships between variables and expressing relationships between these variables in terms of statistical measurement, such as correlations, relative frequencies, or differences between means. (Hopkins) in my research project I also note that quantitative methods were seen as advancement in building and scientific expertise, especially in the Muslim world. (Durant 162 -- 86)

On the other hand a common definition of qualitative research is " & #8230;any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification" (Strauss and Corbin, 1990, p. 17).

In the first instance it is important to understand that the quantitative research methods were inherited, as it were, by the social sciences from the scientific research paradigm. Science and scientific methodologies have for years tended to dominate the academic and research community at universities and research institutions and has been, until fairly recently, the accepted mode of research because of its claim to objectivity and verifiability. However, as Glazer ( 2000) states, "There is a growing tendency & #8230;to favor more qualitative research methods. (Glazer, 2000, p. 3).

There has also been increasing recognition of the importance and place of quantitative approaches and methodologies. This approach is used extensively in the human sciences. Qualitative methodologies were developed in order to cater for certain areas and kinds of research, particularly in the humanities, where quantitative methods were not appropriate and could not deal with more complex and variable data input. In other words, qualitative methodologies are more flexible and open to the inclusion of multiple and dynamic variables and factors from the research data. Vincent Pouliot (2007) has argued that the objectivist or "experience-distant" form of knowledge should be supported by subjective (experience-near) knowledge. (POULIOT, 2007, p. 359)

Many researchers have found that in many instances using the quantitative method in investigating subject areas or demographics where there were a large number of interlinked and interdependent variables was inadequate for dealing with the wide range of nuances and complexities of subjective views and analysis. Therefore, the qualitative research methods were developed to deal with research in all fields, particularly in the social sciences and with regard to cultural and subjective data . (Myers)

3. Explain how research produces scientific knowledge

Research is in essence the process that facilitates scientific knowledge. However, in order to answer this question one firstly has to establish what is meant by scientific knowledge. The word science comes from the Latin "scientia" which means knowledge. A definition which helps one to establish the precise meaning of scientific knowledge is; "Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. This system uses observation and experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena. The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people have gained using that system." ( Science Definition)

In other words, research is the process by which the information is gathered in order to be subjected to the scientific process of analysis -- which in turn leads to testing and verification. The aim of scientific knowledge is therefore to build a system of reliable knowledge and insight about the universe, which can be logically and rationally explained.

The term scientific knowledge is attributed to some facts and principles that are acquired through the long process of inquiry and investigation and research. The investigation & #8230; goes through various aspects to come to a conclusion and the aspects include all the laws, theories, concepts and models. The definition can be expressed in other way also and you can say that it is a kind of knowledge that is acquired by the systematic study and is organized in accordance with some general principles." (What Is Scientific Knowledge?)

The spirit of research and scientific knowledge has been adhered to in my study. This is evidenced by the emphasis on research to "… increase the precision and value of both historical and contemporary scientific understandings of project management." (PROJECT Management in the MEDIEVAL PERIOD, p.12)

4. Differentiate between research methodology as opposed to research methods and techniques.

A research methodology is a general process that encompasses a certain set of ideals and values that are directed towards certain results. Research methods and techniques are therefore the practical foundations for the application of a certain methodology that is directed towards defined scientific ends. In other words, research methods and techniques are the practical aspects that are intended to meet the needs and requirements of that particular methodology. A good example would be the different research methods and techniques that suit a qualitative rather than a quantitative methodology, such as case studies as opposed to statistics.

The Research Topic, Project Title and Research Problem:

1. List four typical examples of research topics appropriate to your field of study

1. 1. Architectural issues relating to the Medieval Period.

1.2. The development of selected architectural innovations during the Early Renaissance

1.3. The influence of social and economic factors on early European Project Management

1.4. A Comparison of factors affecting the development of organized building and project development: Medieval and Late Renaissance.

2. Illustrate some basic purpose of doing research by means of an example

Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic. It is an investigation intending to find solutions to scientific and social problems through objective and systematic analysis. It is also a "... systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon." (Rajasekar S. et al. 2006) as such, research includes inductive and deductive methods to achieve this end. Inductive research methods "... analyze the observed phenomenon and identify the general principles, structures, or processes underlying the phenomenon observed." (What is Research?) on the other hand deductive methods "…verify the hypothesized principles through observations. (What is Research?)

Therefore, the basic purposes of research are different in terms of these two methods: one is intended to develop explanations, while the other is intended to examine and test the validity of the explanation

This leads to different types of research, such as basic and applied research. Basic research is intended to test various theories and hypotheses. An example of this type of research is the exploration of the theory that development in any field is evolutionary in nature -- which implies a series of related hypotheses that can be tested against the available data sources.

3. Explain the importance of identifying the purpose of an investigation before starting the research

The identification of the purpose of a study is an essential aspect or component in the research process. The identification of purpose and intention is ideally established prior to the research process itself. The reason for this is that the identification of purpose helps to direct and control the research. For example, if project management within a certain era of human building and architectural history is explored with the central purpose of establishing central factors that were to lead to further developments in the history of management, then this purpose acts as a guideline as it were in the research and determines the selection of sources and methodology that will be used. One would not, for example, research on areas outside this general intention and purpose. In other words, if one does not have a firm and definite intention, then the research will tend to be inconclusive and undirected, which would not be helpful in leading towards clear and scientific outcomes.

4. Explain the function of a hypothesis in doing research

The function of as hypothesis is to act as a projected or envisaged idea of what should be the outcome of a research project on a certain subject or area of investigation. A more definitive explanation is; "... A proposed explanation for a phenomenon." (Scientific Reference) a hypothesis should be able to be tested and functions as a directive for further research.

In my research study for example, the hypothesis that was explored was that certain circumstances in different historical periods affect the development of the areas of expertise and their application to project activities. These circumstances include social and cultural movements; the development of scientific and technical knowledge, among others. This hypothesis provides the incentive for further research and determines to a large extent the direction or trajectory of the research outcomes.

5. Explain briefly why applied research instead of basic research will typically be done in industry and commerce, and describe two examples of applied research

The answer to this question becomes clear when the looks the difference between basic and applied research. Basic research is theoretical and is aimed at the expansion of scientific knowledge and is not mainly practically oriented. It is not intended to "…., create or invent something." (What is Applied Research?) Furthermore, there is "… no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research." (What is Applied Research?) Examples of typical themes in basic research are; how did the universe begin or the influence of genetics in disease.

Applied research on the other hand is focused on practical and problem-solving research that has to do with real-world situations. This difference is clearly summarized in the following quotation: "Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to improve the human condition. (Basic vs. Applied research)

Examples of applied research can include the following: Researching a cure for as specific disease or a more business orientated topic: The Paperless Office: How to Improve Organizational Efficiency and Increase Profits.

6. Explain briefly why action research will typically be done in industry and commerce

As is clear from no. 5 above that more practically orientated research topics and subjects are often appropriate to industry and commerce. This is the case with action research. Action research refers in essence to participatory research, where teams of groups solve problems that are linked to their situation and organization. A definition of action research is:

Action research...aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to further the goals of social science simultaneously. Thus, there is a dual commitment in action research to study a system and concurrently to collaborate with members of the system in changing it in what is together regarded as a desirable direction. Accomplishing this twin goal requires the active collaboration of researcher and client, and thus it stresses the importance of co-learning as a primary aspect of the research process. ( Gilmore, Krantz and Ramirez, 1986, p. 161)

As this type of research is concerned with a "community of practice" and deals mainly with specific problems pertaining to their organization or concern, it is well suited to a closed environment and the need to address immediate and specific problems -- as is found in commerce and industry.

Literature Review:

1. How you compile a literature review and reference system

It should be borne in mind that a literature review is an "evaluative account" of what has been published on a certain subject or topic.( Doing a Literature Review) Compiling a literature review entails a number of steps that should be adhered to. In the first instance the central aims and objectives of the research topic will be the fulcrum around which the review will be compiled. In other words, the literature review will refer to the central aims of the main and subsidiary hypothesis of the research or study.

Furthermore, the compilation of the literature review will be highly dependent on the subject matter that is to be explored. One would for example tend to access primary rather than secondary sources in order to achieve a high academic level.

There are a number of stages that should be adhered to. This includes finding models; problem formulation, literature search and evaluation of findings and analysis and interpretation. Finding models refers to looking for examples of other literature reviews in your disciple or on your subject matter. The formulation of a problem statement is important as this forms the basis of the literature review and will also determine the direction of the review. This lead to the literature search and finally the evaluation of the findings,

4. Discuss the two major issues of any research design

The two major issue that are often the most important to consider are the types of methodology that needs to be used and the nature of the subject or population group that is being investigated. These two issues are interrelated. Linked to this is the type of technique and method that will be employed to facilitating the research. The nature of the subject being investigated will to a great extent determine the methodology that will be used. Qualitative rather than quantitative methodologies will be used, for example, in research in the social sciences, although this might not always be the case. Furthermore, another vital consideration is the type of methods and measurement techniques that are most appropriate to the methodology and subject matter; for example, the use of non-random sampling in a closed organization.

Validity of Conclusions:

1. How you identify whether the conclusions of a research study are ecologically valid

While a study might be externally valid and have full verifiability it may not be ecologically validity. Ecological validity should not be equated with external validity. Ecological validity refers to the view that the design of an experiment should be as close as possible and not deviate from the real -- world situation that is being investigated. As one study notes, ecological validity takes into account the fact that the "…artificial situation created for an experiment may differ from the everyday world in crucial ways." (Dunlosky, Bottiroli and Hartwig)

In other words, in order to determine whether the conclusions of a research study are ecologically valid one has to compare the extent to which these conclusions have resulted from a design that emulates the real -- world of that subject under investigation.

2. Explain how the following factors may threaten the internal validity of a research design and means of preventing it: history, spontaneous change, development and maturation, the third-variable problem, the subject effect, the experimenter effect, pretest sensitization, selection of groups

History. History introduces many variables and aspects that can influence and affect the internal validity of the research design. On one level the history of the subject in an interview or case study methodology or design will have an impact of the internal validity and measurement in terms of the variables that may change or alter over time. In terms the design one also has to take into account variables such as changes over time as well as variables that can change and impact the results of the research and therefore the validity of these results. This refers to the fact that "…Internal validity is threatened whenever there exists the possibility of un-controlled extraneous variables that might otherwise account for the results of a study." (Campbell and Stanley, 1963) as one study on this topic notes, "Specific events, in addition to the treatment, that occur between the first and second measurement. The longer the interval between the pretest and posttest, the more viable this threat. (Campbell and Stanley, 1963)

History in terms of the development over time when observation and investigation take place is therefore a central factor in the research design. Taking history into account means that allowance for change over time has to be factored into the design. For example, this can be achieved by using a qualitative rather than a strict quantitative design, or possibly a combination of the two.

Spontaneous change.

Episodes or indicators of spontaneous change can have a radical effect on the internal coherence and integrity of design as they are difficult to envisage in terms of an experimental or clinical situation. For example in clinical measurement and design measurement can fail to "…demonstrate temporal stability" accurately. They may instead reflect spontaneous change or "…concurrent change agents during the test -- retest interval." ( Vear, 1992, p. 28)

Development and maturation

This refers to the threat to validity caused by changes in the subject during the course of the experiment or the series of measurements. This is often the case when research over time is conducted on children - with subsequent changes in concentration ability and other factors that have to be taken into account. These can be biological, psychological or social processes and these changes "...could possible influence the dependent variable and lead to erroneous inferences." (the Internal Validity of Research Designs) This can be dealt with by control features in the design -- such as control groups.

The third-variable problem

The third-variable situation occurs when" & #8230; two things are related because each is causally related to a third variable, not because of any causal link between each other." (Third Variable Problem) the third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two other variables. The following example illustrates this. "For instance, cities with a greater number of churches have a higher crime rate. However, more churches do not lead to more crime, but instead the third variable population leads to both more churches and more crime." (Third Variable Problem) This is an aspect that should be taken into account in the design of a research methodology.

The subject effect

This refers to the incorporation of subjects into the experiment who change or alter their behaviour to perform or present themselves in as certain way. This can result in biased or invalid data.

The experimenter effect

This refers to a situation where the experimenter influences the results of the experiment jeopardizing the integrity of the data. This may be a conscious or unconscious effect that can be reduced by control and focus groups.

Pretest sensitization

This refer to a "…defect created when the pretesting makes subjects either more or less sensitive to the experimental variable." (Chapter 10: Design of Experimental Research in Communication)

Selection of groups

This can occur when a bias takes place in the selection of comparison groups. It can be remedied by randomization or the random assignment of group membership. ( Yu & Ohlund, 2010)

3. Show how true experimental designs take care of the above internal validity problems as well as the threats to external validity.

As Jimenez-Buedo and Miller (2008) state,

Much of the methodological discussion around experiments in economics and other social sciences is framed in terms of the notions of internal and external validity. The standard view is that internal validity and external validity stand in a relationship best described as a trade-off.

Maria JIMENEZ-BUEDO and Luis M. MILLER 2008, p. 301

True experimental design however tend to overcome both internal as well as external validity issues due to the degree of determination and control that they exert. This can be seen by the criteria required for an experiment to be categorized as true.

The sample groups must be assigned randomly.

There must be a viable control group.

Only one variable can be manipulated and tested. It is possible to test more than one, but such experiments and their statistical analysis tend to be cumbersome and difficult.

The tested subjects must be randomly assigned to either control or experimental groups.

(True Experimental Design)

Among the advantages in terms of validity of a true experimental design is that the results can be accurately and conclusively analyzed. (True Experimental Design). This design is also easier to replicate and duplicate and, furthermore, variables can be accurately manipulated in order to validate the results. However, one critique is that this design can be "… almost too perfect, with the conditions being under complete control and not being representative of real world conditions. (True Experimental Design)

In terms of validity true experimental design tends to deals very adequately the above mentioned threats to the validity of results. From these criteria it is clear that many of the limitations to validity, both internal and external, can be reduced.

Data-collecting Methods and Measuring Instruments in Quantitative Research:

1. Illustrate by means of examples how indicators may be used to define and help to measure non-tangible things (for example, constructs such as values, opinions, expectations, and so on)

A good example of the way that indicators may be used measure non-tangible factors and variables is the value management (VM) measurement tool. This is a quantitative instrument used in management research to meet certain practical challenges, such as limited resources and tight schedules arising in the construction industry. ( Lin, et al. 2011) this involves the identification of various key performance indicators or KPIs in order to develop a performance measurement framework. For example in a study by Lin et al. ( 2011) a survey was undertaken in the construction industry, which identified 19 KPIs from a total of 47 potential performance indicators. (Lin et al. 2011) These were divided into predicting indicators, process-related indicators, and outcome-related indicators. These indicators were then analyzed in terms of their relationships

Another example would be the use of performance indicators to measure nursing care. As Boltz states, "The correct selection of performance measures or quality indicators is as crucial step in evaluating nursing care…" (Bolz, 2011, p.17) Furthermore, these indicators are based on "…either a standard of care, policy, procedure or protocol"( Boltz, 2011, p. 17) this also includes indicators such as "sentivity" that are used in the measurement process.

2. Explain briefly the basic requirements for measuring instruments regarding validity and reliability

The central aspect and indicator of the standard of the quality of measuring instruments is the validity and reliability of these instruments. (Kimberlin CL, Winterstein, 2008, p. 2276) in this light the most basic requirement of a measuring instrument is the reduction of error in the measurement process. Other basic requirements include the following; stability of the measure; internal consistency of the measuring instrument as well as the reliability of the scores and data received from the measuring instrument. Another fundamental but essential aspect of the measuring instruments in terms of both reliability and validity is that they show reliability in their test scores and statistics and that they show a responsiveness to change. (Kimberlin CL, Winterstein, 2008, p. 2276)

3. Distinguish between the validity of a measuring instrument and the validity of the study in which it was used to collect data

While he measuring instrument may have a high degree or standard of validity this does not necessarily mean that the study itself will have a high degree of validity. In other words while a measuring instrument of high validity will potentially provide valid results, this is dependent on the structure, design and the process used in the study.

4. Briefly describe different data-collecting methods

There are many different types of data collecting methods. From a quantitative methodological point-of-view one could refer to random sampling and to more structured data collection methods and instruments. This form of data collection includes experiments and clinical trials, as well as recording defined events and surveys and questionnaires.

From a more qualitative perspective the following data collection methods are the most common: interviews and open -ended questionnaires and surveys, case studies and document reviews.

5. Distinguish between measurement and observation

Measurement refers to the precise assessment of difference and states of existence, while observation refer to the use of the sense in the process of viewing differences and change. In essence, one measures or uses instruments to analyse what one observes. In this light, "... measurements have the accurate measure of what you are seeing." ( What is the difference between observation and measurements?)

6. Describe how secondary data such as obtained by means of computer simulations may contribute to the understanding of certain phenomena

Secondary data usually refers to data that is collected by someone other than the user. (Crossman) the main advantage of this source of data is that it saves the researcher time, effort and energy in the process of research. For example, in investigating some aspect of population development in a region the researcher would be greatly assisted by secondary data such as a population census. This applies to data that can be obtained from computer simulations as well, where a great deal of insight into the subject can be obtained via reliable and tested data, compared to other methods of data sourcing. Computer simulations also have the advantage of generating numerous possible scenarios that may further help the researcher plan and expand on his or her research design.

7. Give examples of secondary information sources and the benefits of using them instead of doing empirical research

Secondary sources are usually referred to as a source that refer to and interpret and analyze a primary source. The important point if these secondary sources are not directly related to the subject of inquiry but are one or two steps removed from the subject. For example studies or books that discuss the subject. Some examples of secondary sources are:

A journal/magazine article which interprets or reviews previous findings

A history textbook

A book about the effects of WWI.

(What is a Primary Source?)

Secondary sources are extremely useful for a number of reasons. The secondary source may be particularly useful where there is a paucity of primary empirical data on the subject or where primary sources are not reliable. Secondary sources can provide insight into the subject that would otherwise be difficult to obtain; for example, commentaries on ancient documents that are difficult to obtain or which are no longer extant. Many historical and anthropological studies take secondary sources as the point of departure where there are no primary sources available. Furthermore, secondary sources are often interpretive and can provide useful and original ideas and perspectives on the subject.

8. List of steps regarding the follow-up of postal survey in order to increase the response rate

The first step would be to analyse and isolate central or key responses or groups of responses from the survey. This means that initial responses should be categorized or sorted in terms of their relevance to the subject and variables that are being investigated in the research.

The applicable responses should then be followed up with a telephone call in order to glean further information from the respondent that could add depth and validity to the research. Other methods include follow-ups using emails or even social networking tools such as twitter.

Studies indicate the use of a follow-up telephone call or other forms of post-survey contact increases the rate of response considerably. For example, a study by Martins et al. ( 2012) on response rates from physicians surveyed for oncology research increased from 40 to 70% when a follow -- up telephone call was used. ( Martins et al. 2012, p. 1021.)

9. List the problems with telephone surveys and means to resolve them

There are many issues that affect the validity and usefulness of telephone surveys. The following is a list of some of the most quoted of these problems.

Sampling. Sampling for the general population should include the fact that as many as fifteen percent of the population will not be listed in the telephone directory. One also has to take into account numbers that have changed and people who have moved etc. into the assessment of sampling validity. One should also take into account the fact that many households do not have a phone. As one study notes;

A critical problem raised by telephone-based surveys is that of obtaining representative probability samples. About ten per cent of the general population do not have a telephone in their home; and about a quarter of those who do have telephones have ex-directory (unlisted) numbers... A complete and accessible listing of domestic telephone numbers does not exist and is unlikely to do so in future.

(Thomas and Purdon)

Other problems that can affect sampling and validity include no response or non-response

Quality of response. This can affect the quality of the information obtained, which in turn affects the reliability of the study.

10. Explain why it is important to provide clear instructions to respondents on how to complete survey questionnaires.

The simple answer to this question is that if the respondent is not provided with clear and comprehensive instruction then this could reduce the value and validity of the response. In other words, clear and direct instructions provide the necessary direction for the responses, which are especially important if quantifiable methods and tools are to be used in the analysis of the results.

11. Explain why ethical issues are important in measurement

Ethical issues are important in all forms of research, including quantifiable research and measurement. When obtaining information for that which is to be measured and processed, the same ethical rules that refer to the basic research in the sciences apply. This refers to the view that,

Ethical issues are present in any kind of research. The research process creates tension between the aims of research to make generalizations for the good of others, and the rights of participants to maintain privacy. Ethics pertains to doing good and avoiding harm. Harm can be prevented or reduced through the application of appropriate ethical principles. Thus, the protection of human subjects or participants in any research study is imperative ( Orb a. Et al. 2001, p.93)

For example, while the quantitative measurement tools are used in healthcare research this does not absolve the researcher from adhering to the ethics of care and confidentiality in that context.

One must also consider the importance of ethics within the measurement process. The way in which data is collected must not transgress basic ethical norms and standards. For example, ethical standards would be transgressed if data was collected without proper controls or if the researcher selected what to observe.

Qualitative Research Design:

1. Discuss the role of historic research in the presiding judgment used in corporate law

Corporate law relies to a great extent on historic research in determining various judgments and legal stances. As an example one could refer to the history of corporate entrepreneurship and its evolution. As one study notes, "…historical literature provided valuable longitudinal insights on the significance of routines and culture in encouraging or retarding entrepreneurship and innovation within large firms." (Jones and Wadhwani, 2006, p. 25)

For example, in a research study by Graham and Schulder (2001), the researchers "…. provided an historical study of innovation at U.S.-based Corning which demonstrated that managerial hierarchies and economies of scale were less important in promoting technological innovation within firms than certain firm-specific cultural characteristics." (Jones and Wadhwani, 2006, p. 25) This finding was linked to the evolution of the medium sized and family owned company which developed and reinvented itself into a leading corporation after the Second World War. (Jones and Wadhwani, 2006, p. 25)

The above can be linked to various historical analyses which show, for example, the evolution from neoclassical theory to evolutionary theory in the development of a corporate ethos and it associated legal aspect. One cloud refer as well to the Business Judgment Rule in corporate law and the importance of historical research in its development. This refers to the concept in corporation law whereby, "...directors of a corporation . . . are clothed with [the] presumption, which the law accords to them, of being [motivated] in their conduct by a bona fide regard for the interests of the corporation whose affairs the stockholders have committed to their charge."

(Business Judgment Rule) .

2. Explain why case study research approaches can be described as qualitative research and not as quantitative research

One of the most common forms of qualitative research is the case study. A case study is generally defined as a form of empirical form of inquiry that "…investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when & #8230;the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident." (Myers)

Case studies as an accepted research method are widely acknowledged in human sciences research. This form of research methodology is invariably qualitative and not quantitative in nature. The reason for this is that case studies are in the first instance non-objective. This means that case studies usually probe the subjective nature of the subject and often refer to in-depth exploration and analysis of a certain individual's case history. A second reason why a qualitative rather than a quantitative approach is used in case studies is that they deal with a wide range of variables that would be extremely difficult to accommodate in a quantitative methodology.

As noted above, a working definition of quantifiable research is research that is aimed at "…determining the relationship between one thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population" (Hopkins). Qualitative research is " & #8230;any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification" (Strauss and Corbin, 1990, p. 17).

The central reason why case studies are associated with qualitative research is related to the underlying theories and philosophy of these two methodologies. A philosophical stance that favors objectivism and scientific verifiability would choose a form of quantifiable methodology; while constructivist and subjectivist researchers would on the other hand more commonly choose qualitative methods. These choices are largely dependent on the theoretical trajectories and the need to be epistemologically and theoretically consistent.

Common examples of qualitative methods include action research, case study research and ethnography. Data is gleaned from more open -- ended techniques in comparison to the statistical and measurable data that is expected in quantifiable research methods.

3. Describe how focus-groups are used to obtain information

Focus Groups are in reality structured group interviews which have their origins in media and marketing. These groups were also a response from many social scientists in the early Twentieth Century who felt that traditional information gathering methods were not adequate. This refers to the fact that in the interview method the feelings, biases and preconceptions of the interviewer may influence the information gathering process and the results of the research.

In essence the focus group allows for the gathering of views and information from the respondents rather than directly from the perceptions of the interviewer. The focus of information gathering therefore shifts from the interviewer to the interviewee. This facilitates a better understanding of the thinking and views of the subject and also allows for the reassessment of prior information gathering techniques. ( Action Research and Action Learning)

4. List the circumstances under which open-ended instead of closed-ended questions are to be used to collect information to explore a phenomenon

Open-ended questions are in the first instance to be used when the researcher is undertaking exploratory research in a certain context. Secondly, open-ended questions are more appropriate to a research situation which is dynamic and where there are many variables that could impact the research findings and their validity. For example, open-ended instead of closed -- ended questions would be used when researching individual responses and experienced to some situation.

In brief, closed-ended questions refer to a question format where the response is limited to a number of selected choices. This type of format is usually associated with quantitative research. Open ended questions are usually defined as the type of question format that is intended to solicit additional information from the respondent. It is also known as infinite response or unsaturated type questions. (Richardson) They are usually phrased in broad terms and require more than a single or short response. By definition, they are broad and require more than one or two word responses.

Therefore, for the above description, the following are the most common circumstances where open-ended questions rather than closed ended questions would be used.

Open-ended questions are used where a broad and wide range of response is required for the research to have validity.

It is used where investigative rather than structured research is a priority and where there is no strict set of parameters is required in the research model.

It is most often used where qualitative rather than quantitative research methods are employed.

Open-ended questions are used where more information is required from the respondent; especially when this information is related to subjective states, such as feelings, emotions and experiences.

Open ended question are also more appropriate in circumstances where secondary research by other researchers is envisaged. (Advantages of Open-Ended Questions)

Open -- ended questions are required in circumstances where the research has a large contextual component. In other words, where the context or the research environment is an essential part of the research question and design, then open -- ended questions are essential in order to reflect the variables in this context.

Open -- ended questions are used where full and meaningful answers are required.

Open-ended questions are used in circumstances where statistical validity is not a priority of the research model or design.

5. Describe by means of examples how the reliability of qualitative measuring instruments may be improved

Reliability is defined as "…something that will perform in the future as it has in the past ." (Bashir, et al. 2008, p. 37) One should bear in mind that the norms of validity in terms of scientific measurement are not applicable in many cases when it comes to quantitative research. Therefore, there are different standards and norms by which the reliability of qualitative research is determined -- and it is in these areas that the reliability of qualitative measurement instruments can be improved. In this regard the reliability and validity of this form of research depends on factors such as plausibility, credibility and trustworthiness. ( Bashir, et al. 2008, p. 37)

One of the most significant critiques of the reliability of qualitative research is that the results and findings of this form of research are biased or prejudiced by the input and views of the researcher. Therefore, a central factor in improving reliability in this area is to reduce factors that could lead to possible bias or preconceptions influencing the data collection process and analysis. ( Bashir, et al. 2008)

Bearing this in mind there are a number of ways in which the researcher can improve the reliability of the qualitative research methods and instruments that he is using. One of the ways of improving reliability is through repetition or repeatability. This is to enhance the "internal consistency" of the information gathering and the results. (Bashir, et al. 2008, p. 37)

However, as was referred to, one of the most important areas in term of reliability is to ensure that the reviewer's subjective views and preconceptions do not skew or influence the results of the research. A method that can be used in this regard is the multi-method approach, where a number of techniques and methods are used to act as points of comparison. This also helps to reduce possible researcher bias. Researcher bias can also be reduced by the researcher employing multiple data collection strategies, which will serve to validate the findings through collaboration. (Bashir, et al. 2008, p. 38)

Other methods that can be employed to improve reliability are; verbatim accounts, which refer to obtaining literal statements of participants; the use of recording, video and images as well as participant reviews, among others. (Bashir, et al. 2008, p. 37)

Report Writing:

Tell us your learning outcomes of writing a report on your own research project

One of the central learning outcomes of writing a report is that I have become cognizant of the complexity of the research process and the various aspects that demand attention in the various stages of research and writing process. For example, what I have become aware of is that one has to continually question and interrogate one's assumptions and presumptions about a particular topic. One also has to be prepared to deviate from one's biases and preset notions in one's hypothesis and that one should also be aware of the underlying ethics pertaining to accurate data collection, compilation and analysis.

Research Proposal:

Tell us how you plan your research project and its experience"

The planning phase revolves around the initial idea and hypothesis that acts as a motivation for research. One then proceeds to a survey of the literature in order to determine what has already been discussed on the topic. The planning phase therefore is in essence a work in progress where various ideas and theories are tested against hsint the studies and literature on the subject. Once an area of research has been clearly identified then one proceeds to develop an outline of the main themes and areas of concern. This process leads to a focus on areas that can be integrated integrsted into the overall study.

The experiment of my research project was enlightening. The goal of this research was to demonstrate that, despite the relative newness of project management science as an academic subject, project management as a discipline has been around since ancient times. Through understanding the history of project management -- both in theory and practice -- one is able to approach and compare the complex and challenging problems of contemporary project management from a new yet historical perspective