Harlem During 1920-1960 the United

Harlem During 1920-1960

The United States is considered for centuries now the "land of all opportunities." Throughout time, it has attracted millions of people from around the world in search for a better future and for new ground for personal affirmation. However, behind the glamour and excitement of the "American dream" there lie numerous unsuccessful stories that come to point out the different perspectives of a certain reality.

The struggles that have marked the history of Harlem can be considered relevant examples in this sense. This part of the city of New York has shared the image of a troubled existence, that of the Black Americans that erected it, and of the millions of immigrants who found shelter in the slums and overcrowded streets of Harlem. Its mere existence points out the difficulties of race segregation, of social injustice, of political indifference and atomization. Nonetheless, in order to have an accurate image of the real meaning of what Harlem represents, it is important to take into account its history, from its very creation in the 19th century, through its most significant periods, especially the 1960s, which marked a turning point in the history and evolution of the Black American community, not only in Harlem, but throughout America.

Introduction

The present paper will underline the major issues surrounding the controversial perspectives on Harlem. There are various opinions on the actual role the New York district played in the evolution of the city and of the general mentality related to the African-American community. On the one hand, there are some who had labeled Harlem as being a cancer in the heart of a city and a large-scale laboratory experiment in the race problem. On the other hand however, there are voices who credit Harlem as being the cultural and intellectual capital of the black race, a place used by some of the most colorful and dynamic personalities in the black world as a vantage point, a platform and proving ground for their ideas and ambitions. Both perspectives have their own independent argumentative schemes; however, while the former relies on a rather observatory experience, using the basic images offered by the poor living conditions, the miserable state of houses, the latter takes into account the need and desire of the African-American population to strive for the improvement of their human condition, as well as an affirmation of their political, economic, and cultural identity.

Due to the complexity of the issue at hand, there are different matters which should be tackled in order to have a clear view on the overall assessment of the true identity of Harlem up to the 1960s. In this sense, the paper will try to present the history of Harlem, while pointing out certain specific and worth mentioning aspects. Thus, there are some questions whose answers may shed light on the issue and which will constitute the framework of the paper.

Firstly, there needs to be a presentation of the general views on Harlem: negative and positive impact on the city of New York. Secondly, what were the advancements of Black Americans through their own efforts and their own particular means by excluding all white liberals and promoting Black Nationalism? The advancements must be seen in terms of social, economic, political, and cultural achievements.

Also, attention should be given to why was Harlem the meeting point of all emancipation desires of the Black Americans in the 1920 and 1940. At the same time, who were actually the main figures of the actions that gave Harlem its fame and what was actually the need for such manifestations? Finally, from the perspective of the literature that was born during this time and in reference to this place, what created the need for beautifying the Harlem and all that it represented?

Another important part of the history of Harlem is the period of the Black Rights movement. In this sense, questions arise on the importance of this initiative for America but for Harlem in particular. In this sense, why was there a need for a radical stand for civil rights for the Black population? Were there new voices to speak out for the Black community? Finally, taking into account the desperate desire for a better life, what were the social, cultural, and political achievements of the Black community in this period?

Overall, to fully understand Harlem, one must examine the history of African-American settlement in New York. At the same time, particular attention should be given to the elements which actually make up Harlem and the people it represents.

A cancer in the heart of a city or the cultural and intellectual capital of the black race

The word "Harlem" is practically synonymous with "change." Few, if any, American city underwent as many social and cultural changes as did Harlem from 1920 through 1960. Harlem has been called many things: from the cultural and intellectual capital of the black race; to "a cancer in the heart of a city;" and a large-scale laboratory experiment in the race problem. From this perspective, some of the most colorful and dynamic personalities in the black world have used Harlem as a vantage point, a platform proving ground for their ideas and ambitions. These ideas and ambitions led to the belief that the advancement of black Americans especially, Harlemites, through their efforts and actions excluding all white liberals combined with nationalism encouraged and supported key social, political, and cultural African-American voices of change. Their revolutionary attitudes in turn led to changes that were considered by the white opponents to be uncontrollable and therefore to have a negative impact on the structure and essence of their city.

Due to the considerable differences in style and attitudes, the population of Harlem was often considered to be inferior to the rest of the New Yorkers. This opinion was widely spread and was seen as officially accepted. In this sense Heilbroner admits that We tend to think of Harlem as a kind of city within a city -- a thousand acres of concentrated misery...We would do much better to think of it as an underdeveloped country, transplanted by some cruel joke of geography to the midst of the richest city in the world. And the difference is not merely one of metaphor. What is at stake is the way in which we think about Harlem's plight, the way we analyze the roots of its poverty, the way we can best plan for its rescue.

Therefore, the perspective was one of exclusion, which presented this part of the city as a plight hence a distinct issue to be dealt with. However, in order to actually grasp the meaning of this approach, it is important to point out the main orientation points of its history.

On the other hand, there are opinions which credit Harlem for bringing together people with the same mentalities and desires to change the present and influence the future of the Black American population in New York and therefore dedicated their philosophical thought to the struggle for intellectual and cultural emancipation of the African-Americans. In this sense, W.E.B. Du Bois argued in 1903 for the start of the education of black American men who would eventually end up empowering the entire black race. In his "Talented tenth" he demands that action be taken against the oppression of the black Americans because for three long centuries this people lynched Negroes who dared to be brave, raped black women who dared to be virtuous, crushed dark-hued youth who dared to be ambitious, and encouraged and made to flourish servility and lewdness and apathy. But not even this was able to crush all manhood and chastity and aspiration from black folk. A saving remnant continually survives and persists, continually aspires, continually shows itself in thrift and ability and character. Exceptional it is to be sure, but this is its chiefest promise; it shows the capability of Negro blood

In this respect, the author goes further and underlines the need for education and unity among the black community by pointing out its exceptionality

The Negro race, like all races, is going to be saved by its exceptional men. The problem of education, then, among Negroes must first of all deal with the Talented Tenth; it is the problem of developing the Best of this race that they may guide the Mass away from the contamination and death of the Worst, in their own and other races (...)

From this perspective, Harlem was seen by the blacks as a haven for their struggle against the cultural and intellectual atrocities of the white majority in the city.

History of Harlem

Although Harlem is nowadays considered to be a symbol of the African-American presence in New York, it was not always this way. At the end of the 19th century, the area which represents today's Harlem was inhabited by various numbers of ethnic and racial groups, as well as people from different social backgrounds. Therefore, due to the fact that New York had become one of the most important industrial, social, cultural, and political centers of the country, with a wide access to the outside world, it was known for its bustling downtown areas and its quiet peripheries. This is why people that had financial resources to move away from the agitated center often chose Harlem. At the same time however,

On the periphery of these upper class enclaves, however, impoverished Italian immigrants huddled in vile tenements located from 110th to 125th Streets, east of Third Avenue to the Harlem River. To the north of Harlem's Italian community and to the west of Eighth Avenue, Irish toughs roamed an unfilled marshlands area referred to by locals as "Canary Island."

In this sense, it can be said that in the beginning, Harlem represented the escape place for many of the needy in search for a better life. From this amalgam, the Jews represented the largest group, the reason being the oppressive treatment they were continuously subject to throughout the world. Still, the phenomenon that led to the coming of a black majority of people in this area was essential for the configuration of the blueprint of Harlem. The black migration in the North was the result of their leaving the South in search for jobs and better wages, as well as better conditions of living. However, other cities such as Detroit or Chicago were also the target of this type of migration and the results were contradictory. By comparison to the mentioned cities, New York proved to be more tolerant to this flux of black population. In New York's Manhattan, African-Americans made their way to 7th avenue and 34th street which was better known as Tenderloin and to the Columbus Circle area. These areas were overcrowded, dirty, and expensive. Therefore, the black population oriented itself towards cheaper areas, such as Harlem, where they had little resistance to fight. This was largely due to the fact that at the same time, other ethnic groups such as the Jews were leaving their establishments and thus, the social pressure was much reduced. In the end, lower rents and a great number of living spaces made black people create what is today known as Black Harlem.

In 1905, the New York Herald announced the beginning of the end of white Harlem. "An untoward circumstance has been injected into the private dwelling market in the vicinity of 133rd and 134th streets. At 31 West 133rd Street tenants were leaving.

East of Eighth to the Harlem River, from 130th to 145 streets, lay black Harlem, the largest, most exciting urban community in Afro-America -- or anywhere else, for that matter.

The 1920s, the World War, and the events that followed had a great impact on the status of the African-Americans in the Harlem. In the first place, the Great Depression represented a cut in jobs all over the country and the unskilled labor black people from the Harlem provided was the first sector to suffer from these cuts. Secondly, the standard of living decreased significantly throughout the U.S. And taking into account the limited financial possibilities of the black people, they became a sensible and vulnerable segment of the society, "according to a 1933 study conducted by the Milbank Memorial Fund, the median family income of all black families surveyed declined to $1,019 in 1932 from $1,808 in 1929." Thirdly, the fact that they still lacked the entire set of civil rights based on race discrimination or purely social injustice also played an important role in shaping the future evolution of the black community in Harlem.

The 40s saw an increase in the hostilities between the white and the black population of Harlem. The main reason for this surge in violence was the decreasing influence of the whites in the Black Harlem. In this sense, there was the constant threat that the whites would eventually lose the control over this part of the city. At the same time, however, there were different instigating forces from the part of the black community which was frustrated for the over control the whites had on job opportunities and employment in the area. Therefore, there were growing tensions which eventually led to events such as the 1943 Riot that resulted, according to some figures, in at least five people killed.

This evolution of events must be seen in its historical context. They were in fact a replica of similar riots that took place in Detroit. However, for Harlem, it represented a crossing point because it marked the end of a phase in the clash between the white and the black communities in the area. In this sense, Dominic Capeci considers that "the Harlem riot of 1943...was a harbinger of the 1960's urban black protest. It reflected in microcosm the shifts in racial attitudes and demography that were occurring under the transforming process of urbanization." Moreover, it pointed out to the difficult tensions existing between the two communities at the time.

From a historical approach, the 40s were considered to be an important period in the history of the Harlem suburb because it marked the increase in the black population and the changes in terms of social landscape and cultural affirmation. According to some figures, "Harlem's Black population rapidly increased from 83,248 in 1920 to 203,894 in 1930, with a residential density of 236 persons per acre, or twice that of Manhattan as a whole. Low incomes and high rents forced two or three families into apartments designed for one family." The Depression years had taken their toll on the building of houses which became less accommodating for the increasing population. This in turn transformed the social environment because it forced families to reduce their personal living space and thus a certain aspect of decay and slum type architecture became associated with the area.

The 50s and the 60s did not see any reasonable improvements, on the contrary. Despite various housing plans to increase the number of blocks hence the conditions of living, these failed most of the times or had limited results. Therefore, the 1949 Urban Renewal Act tried to make use of federal funds to reshape the structure of the cities in America, but had little effect on the Harlem. It only increased the "pattern of monolithic architectural design in overwhelming superblock housing developments with few design amenities."Overall, it is important to briefly take into consideration the timeline of the evolution of the Harlem suburb from the residential area it was first intended to be to the actual low income, ethnically diverse area it eventually resulted in. This perspective led to the establishment of the idea that Harlem became an ill famed part of the city and the rising tensions between the whites and the blacks only added to this conception which would mark both the overall history of the district and its development.

The advancements of Black Americans

From the 20s onwards, Harlem slowly became associated with the black population taking into account the fact that the whites were constantly losing their influence in the district. In reaction to the growing pressures exercised by whites, many black intellectuals tried to establish an empowering philosophy which would eventually lead to the improvement of the status of the black community in respect to the white. This philosophy followed two interwoven directions. On the one hand, it excluded all white liberals, and on the other, it promoted a certain black nationalism that focused mainly on the elevation of the black spirit as a support paradigm for development.

The main aspect of the reactions manifested by the black community towards the whites was the rejection of the white liberals. In general terms, the exclusion of any possible influence of whites in black people's affairs and in their struggle for emancipation and cultural identification is justified through the fact that "many black people perceive most white liberals as hypocritical and selfishly motivated in their relation with black people." Although laboratory experiments cannot justify this attitude, the practical experience has this perception entrenched in the collective mentality of the black community. This reaction to the influence the whites tried to exercise on the African-American population, especially in Harlem seeing the great density of the district, triggered a negative overall approach of the relation between the two racial groups.

On the other hand, in strict connection with the refusal of any contact with the white liberals, Black Nationalism became an important issue in the collective mind of the African-American community. Along with the Negro Renaissance, "Black Nationalism shared a strong sense of racial consciousness and racial pride." One of its most representative figures, Marcus Garvey pointed out the importance of reaching back to the cultural roots of the African-American people that must strive above its situation and reach a higher degree of self achievement. He used his organization, the Universal Negro Improvement Association, to promote, by appealing to religious arguments as well, the improvement of the condition of the African-American community in cities such as Chicago, Detroit, and New York. However, Harlem is considered to have been the most receptive to his message.

There are various reasons for this fact. On the one hand, the Harlem community represented an area with a high density of black people and therefore the message received a wider attention and range. On the other hand, the situation in the suburbs constantly degraded and the relations with the white communities made the black people identify even more with the messages promoted by Garvey, who advocated a stronger black unity and free self-determination. His conclusion was to move beyond the prejudices and to lead his people back to Africa. The "Back to Africa" movement and the more vocal aspects of black nationalism found a greater acceptance in Harlem than in any other place due to the fact that Harlem had offered little hope for the black people and the messages promoting the will of God as being the driving force behind the emancipation mission soon caught the attention of the black community Moreover, the religious aspect of the argument ensured an even greater impact on the mentalities emerging at the time.

Harlem soon became the essence of the struggle for a better life for the African-American communities, not just in New York, but around the country. Garvey set in motion groups such as the African Legion or the Black Cross Nurses. The results of the actions undergone by the representative figures of the black community in Harlem can be noticed and analyzed in terms of the areas they manifested. Therefore, there were important developments in the social, economic, political, and cultural areas.

Social

An increasingly impenetrable wall was erected in Harlem. It was a wall of subtle prejudices, veiled discrimination and faintly concealed antagonism. The cultural and therefore social shock came in response to the discrepancy between the expectations of the black people and the resulting situation, especially due to the fact that New York stood as a symbol of all the better things that modern life could afford.

Harlem's distinctiveness among American and other geographical areas in terms of its energy; its atmosphere; and even its renewed optimism when the community has enjoyed feelings of fresh hope for itself and/or the welfare of its citizens belongs more than anything, it seems, to Harlem's own longstanding brand of "street corner" activism which was spawned within Harlem as a result of the area's chronic substandard living, working, and general economic conditions. The end of the First World War in which a lot of black people had fought had brought with it little improvement in the conditions of the community. In this sense, there was a lot of disappointment and resent among black people.

Inadequate housing combined with unreasonably high rents for existing apartments, widespread and chronic unemployment, a lack of adequate hospital and other medical treatment facilities, sub-standard K-12 educational quality, and other chronic social and cultural problems have all helped to fuel activism in Harlem. From the 20s up to the 40s, the social environment of Harlem was marked by the inability and lack of will from both the white and the black community to coexist. In this sense, on the one hand, the whites wanted to constantly control the area, while the blacks demanded their right to benefit from the majority of presence.

A representative figure in this sense was Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. who advocated for the rights of the black population against racial discrimination at the work place. His activities included a series of mass demonstrations, picketing, boycotts meant to influence the attitudes of white employees discrimination practices. These were rather obvious, as Coombs points out in his history of the Harlem District, almost all the stores on 125th Street, the major shopping district, were owned by whites and they employed whites almost exclusively. Harlem soon became a center for both crime and exploitation

However, certain improvements in areas such as social justice and equality did occur. Adam Powell's formation of the Greater New York Coordinating Committee on Employment represented an important step in creating a unitary voice against work discrimination and its actions included attacks on companies such as "the Consolidated Edison Company, then New York Bell Telephone Company. He also made white-owned businesses along 125th Street give in to some demands and promised at least one-third for their salespeople would be black."

Economic

From an economic point-of-view, the period was marked especially by the job campaign of the late 30s. On the one hand, there are some examples of successful achievements in the economic filed. For instance, "Madame C.J. Walker, the cosmetologist and the richest self-made woman in the United States by 1919, and the hardnosed real estate tycoon, Lillian "Pig Foot Mary" Harris" came from the Harlem and succeeded in their line of work.

On the other hand, however, most of the black population living in the Harlem rarely could afford a decent way of life. Most of the times they lived under the poverty line; this was caused by various factors. One such reason was the continuous presence of the white competition and the control the majority group tried to impose. This manifested in their domination in terms of shop owning. According to some figures, "in an area bounded by 116th Street, 155th Street, Madison Avenue, and St. Nicholas Avenue, whites owned 83%, or approximately 1,916, of the business establishments surveyed in 1931."This monopoly did not enable black entrepreneurs to actually develop their economic possibilities and therefore limited their access to an economic chance for a better life.

Yet another reason for the difficult economic situation experienced by the Harlem population was the discriminatory attitude of the white employers. Merely 25% of the workers were actually employed in the white shops. This led to a drastic reduction of financial resources for the black families. In their turn, the black community was forced to pay important sums for their living conditions. There are figures that point the fact that 48% of black Harlemites were paying almost two times as much of their income for rent-based upon the standard four room apartment-as compared to their New York City white counterparts."

This discrepancy draws the attention on an issue that influenced greatly the social as well as economic condition of the black population in Harlem. The housing possibilities were relatively reduced in the District. The overwhelming magnitude and compressed time span of Harlem's population explosion did not enable community development efforts to get off the ground. An attempt by a. Phillip Randolph and others to broaden the community's economic base through the acquisition of existing businesses, housing reform and unionism was unsuccessful. In fact, the government saw a need to initiate the first housing reform in 1928. The construction of the Paul Lawrence Dunbar Houses was backed by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. And was intended to give people of modest means the opportunity to live in and, over time, purchase houses of their own. However, the Great Depression occurred shortly after the buildings opened, and the experiment failed.

By the 1930s the Harlem Community was the most crowded single largest section of New York City with 220,000 blacks. In order to help pay the rent, in most cases, people were often forced to take in tenants in order to pay the costs of the lodging which led to overcrowding. At the same time however, even in this sector, black tenants were forced to constantly be aware of the fact that white landlords could easily evict them despite the fact that most of the times there were no serious grounds for such drastic decisions.

Employment was, as seen above, an important part in the economic and social activity of the black community in Harlem. But an important factor in determining the directions employment took was the actual possibility of the black people to engage in establishing private businesses. Due to the fact that the whites often sabotaged their initiatives, the black people were forced to give in to low paid jobs, miserable conditions and most often degrading treatments. Moreover, aside from the competition with the white people, the black community was forced to also deal with the pressures coming from the Jewish entrepreneurs who were rather influential in the District. In any case, by the time the Jews move out of Harlem, the black population becomes limited to only certain jobs which could not ensure them a decent way of living.

The black communities around the U.S. have always had a strong voice in stating their opinion. However, it is considered that the Harlem community is the strongest in terms of supporting the cause of the African-Americans. It may be important to consider the reasons for such a reality. One may be that the strong voice of the African-American community in Harlem comes in response to the difficulties encountered by the respective micro societies. In this sense, Harlem constituted a small cosmos of different cultural environments,

Among these groups are the British West Indian, the Danish West Indian, the Porto Rican, the African, the South American, and the American Negro of the North and South. These groups are expected to adjust themselves to one particular classification when such is possible. Thirty thousands of Harlem's colored population is reported by the Federal census as having been born in foreign countries, chiefly the West Indies.

Therefore, one reason could be that the need for an increased response in terms of social and racial discrimination resulted from the forced consideration of an immediate answer to the negative treatment of most ethnically diverse groups from Harlem.

Political

There were some political voices which took their toll on the social environment of the Harlem. These were most of the times reminiscences of the 19th century struggle for emancipation from the slavery yoke. An important part was played by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and other key post-Abolition black equality movements, in Harlem and elsewhere. The NAACP became active in Harlem in 1910; soon it became the largest chapter in the country. Following the First World War, when black people were promised an improvement in their civil condition in exchange for their enrollment, the NAACP continued its virulent attacks concerning the lack of the authorities' initiative to keep its promise and grant first class citizenship to the Negro. Other actions followed these type of protests in September 1919 the National Equal Rights League, at its meeting in Washington, followed the lead of the NAACP. In the following month, the National Race Congress also met in Washington and passed resolutions of protest. At about the same time, the National Baptist Convention declared itself in favor of a more complete integration of the Negro in American life.

The NAACP confronted employers, unions and government agencies over the issue of equal opportunity in the Labor and housing markets, and succeeded in expanding the horizons of opportunity for black Harlemites. Despite the fact that their political influence was rather limited, due to the restrictive conditions for political participation, they represented a force which expressed the grievances of the black community in a period when they confronted various discriminatory attitudes from the part of the white community.

The NAACP had a great deal of influence throughout the country, with their stated aim of ending segregation in Albany, taking into account the gravity of the situation in that part of the U.S. However, because of the importance of the black community in Harlem, they focused their efforts in fighting for political and civil right in New York as well.

Although they cannot be considered as being politically involved in the emancipation movement of the black community, a rather big impact had personalities such as activist Philip Randolph who lived in Harlem and published the radical magazine the Messenger. It was in Harlem that he organized the Brotherhood of sleeping Car Porters. Also, W.E.B. Dubois and James Weldon Johnson lived and published in Harlem in the 1920s. The latter tried to influence the overall opinion on the black community by publishing works on certain aspects of the history of Harlem. For instance, Johnson in "The making of Harlem" presented the swift evolution of the District, from its very beginning in the 19th century to the successful stories of Mrs. Mary Dean, known as "Pig Foot Mary" or Adolph Howell, "a leading colored undertaker." These attempts came as an expression of the desire to show the world and the society in general of the valuable contribution the black community can bring to the development of the social environment.

The Renaissance had a considerable impact on the way black people became to be seen in the social and political scene. In this sense, "the decisions to migrate in and of itself were an act of defiance against the social order and political constrains of the South, and a vote cast for the liberating possibilities of the North. The new sense of political activism was reflected in the massive shift in Black affiliation from the Republican to the Democratic Party and in the increasing influence of black organizations." Therefore, it can be said that although the political and the cultural levels of the society do not necessarily fully connect, they tend to influence one another. As regards the political life of the Harlem District, it was highly influenced by the cultural movement of the 20s because the latter focused on establishing a new sense of identity for the black community, an element that would be used in the political rhetoric of the century.

Culture

Although there have been numerous attempts to try to include different personalities in the mainstream of the cultural life of New York, the most important achievement of the black community in Harlem was the so called Harlem Renaissance.

The historical context of the movement must be considered in relation to the end of the First World War and the emergence of a certain peaceful consideration of reality.However, issues regarding the situation of the black population, especially in the Harlem area attracted considerable attention. Franklin admits in this sense that the emergence of the Harlem Renaissance "stemmed in part from the fact that the black writer was inclined to exploit the opportunity that presented itself to write about himself." However, the main reason for the success of the Harlem Renaissance was the fact that it focused on the pressing immediate issues facing the society at the time, such as unemployment, crime, and other economic problems. It reflected the realities of the day and thus it subscribed to the universal trend of the realist writing perspective.

The literature of this time exulted in the sentiment of race conscience. It was full of cries for the injustice and mistreatments of the black community. "They protested against segregation and lynching; they demanded higher wages, shorter hours, and better conditions of work. They stood for full social equality and first class citizenship," as Franklin pointed out. Some of the most important voices of the literary part of the Movement were James Weldon Johnson or DuBois. Also, wide recognition in this sense was given to Claude McKay, "regarded by most critics as having been the first significant writer of the Harlem Renaissance." Jean Toomer was also one of the most talented black writers of the time, as well as Countee Cullen and Langston Hughes.

The general perception on the trends expressed by this movement included the desire of the participants to evoke a higher spirit for the black community, one with which they could identify and in the end on which they could build a strong cultural identity. Alain Locke wrote in this sense what could be interpreted as being the ultimate goal of the Movement: "if after absorbing the new content of American life and experience, and after assimilating new patters of art...then the Negro may well become what some have predicted, the artist of American life." Moreover, this sense of uplifting of the black spirit was found in the music of the time, jazz becoming one of the most listened to musical genres or the time. One of the most remarkable names in the field was Fletcher Henderson, who would end up conducting "one of the most sought-after bands in the country."

From a simple view over the major trends in the Harlem Renaissance, it is easy to observe the fact that, despite the sad and depressing subjects most of the works, be it literature, music or paintings, tackled the general perception was relatively joyful and full of hope. This could be explained through the fact that the African-American specificity in terms of culture focuses more on the rebirth of the spirit rather than on the dwelling of negative developments. In this sense, throughout the cultural experience labeled as the Harlem Renaissance, the major interest for the artists was to beautify each subject under discussion, regardless of its gravity; the most important issue was the exultation of optimism and hope which the black community held dear and drew its inspiration from.