Health Consequences of Air Pollution for Military and Emergency Workers

Air Pollution

The air that surrounds us is a mixture of 78% nitrogen; 21% oxygen; less than 1% of carbon dioxide, argon, and other gases; and varying amounts of water vapor. Any other particles, gases or unoriginal constituents hanging in the air which are not part of its original composition are called 'Pollutants' and this kind of air is called Polluted Air. Even inhaling small amounts of such air pollutants can have serious effects on one's health and leads to environmental problems.

We can see some air pollutants such as the reddish-brown haze in smog; however, other air pollutants, including some of the most dangerous, are invisible.

Air pollution can be natural or human-made. Air pollution occurs naturally during volcano eruptions, forest fires, or dust storms. This has been an occasional problem for humans. However, during the past hundred years, air pollution created by humans has become a major, persistent problem.

Outdoor Air Pollution

Air pollution is a serious problem in the United States and many other industrialized countries. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency, is charged with identification and regulation of pollutants in the ambient air that may cause adverse Effects on Health. The current National Ambient Air Quality Standards are for six pollutants. Despite these federal and state regulations, many cities and regions in the United States currently do not meet these primary standards. Epidemiologic research, human clinical studies and animal toxicological studies continue to provide evidence for adverse Effects on Health of ambient air pollutants, even at exposure levels below the current standards. The major sources of air pollutants are:

Combustion of fossil fuels: These are divided into mobile sources such as motor vehicles, stationary sources such as power plants and factories, and other sources such as barbecues and fireplaces. Tailpipe emissions from motor vehicles are a complex mixture of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons, diesel exhaust particles, and other particulates including lead oxide from tetraethyl lead contained in leaded gasoline.

Photochemical reactions: Oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons interact in the atmosphere to produce Ozone (O3) as a secondary pollutant.

Power Plant Emissions: These release Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulates in the atmosphere. Coal and oil contain sulphur, leading to atmospheric formation of sulfates. Automobiles release oxides of nitrogen, leading to atmospheric formation of nitrates. Aerosolized acid sulfates contribute to acid rain.

Waste incinerators, industry, smelters. These point sources release acid aerosols, metals and organic compounds that maybe hazardous for human health. One example of the numerous hazardous chemicals emitted by these sources is methyl isocyanides that was accidentally released at Bhopal in India in 1984, resulting in 3000 deaths due to pulmonary edema. Some of the air toxins, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, are known carcinogens.

Lungs are the major target of common outdoor air pollutants; especially vulnerable are children, asthmatics, and people with chronic lung or heart disease. The serious toxicity associated with lead exposure is discussed subsequently under Industrial Exposures. The major air pollutants and the mechanisms responsible for their adverse Effects on Health are summarized briefly.

Ozone

Ozone is a major component of smog that accompanies summer heat waves over much of the United States. Exposure of exercising children and adults to as little as 0.08 ppm produces cough, chest discomfort, and inflammation in the lungs. Asthmatics are especially sensitive and require more frequent visits to emergency rooms and more hospitalizations during smog episodes. It is not known whether these acute changes lead to chronic, irreversible lung injury. Ozone is highly reactive and oxidizes polyunsaturated lipids to hydrogen peroxide and lipid aldehydes. These products act as irritants and induce release of inflammatory mediators, cause increased epithelial permeability and reactivity of the airways, and decrease ciliary clearance. The highest inhaled dose is delivered at the bronchoalveolar junction; however, ozone also causes inflammation of the upper respiratory tract.

Nature and Sources of Ozone sensitive and edgy gas which is in the shape of oxygen is O3 that is Ozone. This gas is the chief producer of smog, which is one of the constituent of Air pollution.

Ozone chemically reacts, by oxidizing internal tissues of the body with which it impinges; for example when it impinges with the lungs. It is also potent enough to break down other materials such as rubber compounds.

Formation of Ozone takes place when the sunlight impinges on carbon-based chemicals known as hydrocarbons, together in combination and action with various air pollutants known and popular as oxides of nitrogen.

Hydrocarbons are discharged and dispersed in our atmosphere by motor vehicles, oil and chemical storage and handling facilities and various commercial and industrial sources such as gas stations, dry cleaners and degreasing operations.

When the process of fuel burning takes place in places such as power plants, steel mills and other heavy industry and motor vehicles, pounds of Oxides of nitrogen are emitted as a by-product.

Usually levels of O3 rise in between and throughout the months of May to September when excessively warm temperatures and the soaring intensity of sun radiation impinges with the moribund atmospheric conditions and are notorious for rendering ozone air pollution.

The injurious ozone in the lour atmosphere (troposphere) must not be mixed up with the ozone layer which is protective and useful, in the upper atmosphere stratosphere) which removes away noxious ultraviolet radiation. Effects on Health

Ozone behaves as a strong respiratory irritating agent at the levels usually noticed in nearly all of our country's urban regions during the months of summer. Signs of effects are shortness of breath, inhaling deeply causes significant chest pain, wheezing and coughing.

Detailed studies on the cons of protracted exposures (6 1/2 hours) to comparatively lower Ozone levels have found dysfunctional lungs, biological proof of redness of the lung lining and respiratory inconvenience.

Research proves that when animals are exposed to Ozone, there's an increase in getting easily affected to bacterial pneumonia infection.

People at Risk

Country's Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has described and revealed three sets of citizens who are especially in danger from increasing ozone levels:

1. Patients, already suffering from Respiratory Disease:

Pre-existing lung disease patients (e.g., chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma) are already enduring trimmed working of lungs and subsequently cannot afford further deterioration in lung function because of exposure to ozone.

2. A General sub-group in Public, known as Responders:

Studies have revealed that a certain group in the general public gets affected by ozone exposure during exertions with sufficient damage to lung function as compared with the normal, bearable response of the whole group under the spotlight. Right now, there's no specific way to know about these responders before exposure to ozone, although, EPA's forecast is this particular sub-group make up only 5 to 20% of the overall U.S. population.

3. Individuals Who Commute Outside:

Large numbers of real world and laboratory ozone exposure studies have determined that individuals who excessively exert, or otherwise engage in activities which heighten up their breathing process, get affected more resoundingly to ozone exposure than folks staying and relaxing under one shed.

Ozone Air Pollution: Fact Sheet

Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive gas that is a form of oxygen. It results primarily from the action of sunlight on hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides emitted in fuel combustion. Ozone reacts chemically (oxidizes) with internal body tissues that it comes in contact with, such as those in the lung. It also reacts with other materials such as rubber compounds, breaking them down.

Before the year of 1997, for nearly two decades the federal air quality standard for ozone had been 0.12 parts per million (ppm) averaged over one hour, but tests conducted upon healthy grown-ups and adolescents practicing medium level exercise during exposition to this kind of higher ozone levels and at lower levels too, presents a definite reduction in the breathing ability of an individual.

Between the months of May and October, due to raised temperatures and the increased amount of sunlight combine with the stagnant atmospheric conditions that are associated with ozone air pollution episodes ozone levels typically rise. During the months of summer it is usually noticed when the ozone levels typically rise, it acts as a powerful respiratory agent in almost all of our country's urban area. Signs of effects are:

shortness of breath chest pain when inhaling profoundly wheezing and coughing Long-term, repeated exposure to high levels of ozone may cause large reductions in lung function, inflammation of the lung lining and increased respiratory discomfort. According to an EPA estimate 5 to 20% of the total U.S. population is especially vulnerable to the harmful effects of ozone air pollution. The EPA has identified the three groups of people who are particularly at risk from high ozone levels: People already suffering from respiratory disease; those already afflicted with lung disease such as asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema Individuals engaged in outdoor exercise Responders who are more susceptible to ozone exposure There is a difference between the man-made-ground -level ozone in three lower atmosphere troposphere) and the layer of ozone in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and the two should not be confused with each other. The natural protective layer of ozone in the upper atmosphere protects us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays, on the contrary man-made ground -level ozone is harmful to us and all living things inhibiting our planet.

Nitrogen Dioxide

Oxides of nitrogen include NO and NO2. These have lower reactivity than Ozone. Nitrogen dioxide dissolves in water in the airways to form nitric and nitrous acids, which damage the airway epithelial lining. Children and patients with asthma have increased susceptibility to nitrogen dioxide; there is a wide variation in individual responses to this pollutant.

Nature and Sources OF Nitrogen Dioxide

Nitrogen dioxide is a light brown gas that is an essential constituent of fog in cities. High-temperature burning processes; such as discharge by vehicles and power plants generally send out large amounts of nitrogen oxide (NOx) into the atmosphere.

Nitrogen dioxide impacts in a big way and causes atmospheric reactions that produce ozone. Gas stoves and heaters also disperse a sufficient aggregate of NO2.

Effects on Health

Effects on Health of Nitrogen dioxide introduce irritation in lungs and decrease opposition to respiratory contagions like influenza. The cons of short-term exposure are not pretty elucidating, however, persistent or sporadic impinges from engrossments higher than those usually experienced in the surrounding air can lead to increased cases of intense respiratory disorder in adolescents. Nitrogen oxides are an essential prerequisite for ozone and acid rain as well. In few areas of the western countryside,

NOx) heavily and significantly contribute in the generation of particulate matter. Sulphur Dioxide

This pollutant is highly soluble in water; it is absorbed in the upper and lower airways, where it releases H+, HSO3- (bisulfate), and SO3- (sulfite), which cause local irritation.

Nature and Sources OF Sulphur Dioxide

Sulphur dioxide belongs to the family of sulphur oxide gases. These gases are formed when fuel containing sulphur (mainly coal and oil) is burned, and during metal smelting and other industrial processes. Most SO2 monitoring stations are located in urban areas. The highest monitored concentrations of SO2 are recorded in the vicinity of large industrial facilities.

Effects on Health

The major health concerns associated with exposure to high concentrations of SO2 include effects on breathing, respiratory illness, alterations in the lungs' defenses, and aggravation of existing cardiovascular disease. Major subgroups of the population that are most sensitive to SO2 include asthmatics and individuals with cardiovascular disease or chronic lung disease, as well as children and the elderly. Acid Aerosols

Primary combustion products of fossil fuels are emitted by tall smoke stacks at high altitudes and are transported by air. In the atmosphere, sulphur and nitrogen dioxide are oxidized to sulphuric acid and nitric acid, respectively, which are dissolved into water droplets or absorbed to particulates. These acid aerosols are irritants to the airway epithelium and alter mucociliary clearance. Asthmatics have decreased lung function and increased hospitalizations when exposed to acid aerosols, although there is a wide variation in airway responses.

Particulates

The deposition and clearance of particulates inhaled into the lungs depend on their size. Ambient particulates are highly heterogeneous in size and in chemical composition. It is uncertain which characteristics of ambient particulates contribute to their adverse Effects on Health. According to some animal toxicology studies, ultra fine particulates (less than 0.05 ?m in aerodynamic diameter) are more hazardous. The mechanisms responsible for increased morbidity and mortality associated with exposure of sensitive populations to particulates are unknown; it is suspected that they may be related to free radical generation at the surface of fine particles.

Nature and Sources of Particulates

Particulate matter is the common name given to a kind of air pollution that is made up of intricate and different mixtures of particles hanging in the air that surrounds us. Such specks are available in any area of our atmosphere; however, notable engrossments and/or specific types of such particles can be or develop threatening impairment to human health.

Particulate matter is a mixture of subtle and variable solids like soil dust, dirt, pollens, ashes, molds and soot; and aerosols that appear and vitiate the atmosphere from gaseous combustion by-products such as volatile organic compounds, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

Some diverse sources of particulate pollution are factory and utility smokestacks, vehicle exhaust, wood burning, mining, construction and agriculture.

Effects on Health

Particles of special concern to the protection of lung health are those known as fine particles, less than 2.5 microns in diameter. (For comparison, a human hair is about 75 microns in diameter.) Fine particles are easily inhaled deeply into the lungs where they can be absorbed into the bloodstream or remain embedded for long duration. A recent study showed a 17% raise in mortality risk in areas with higher concentrations of small particles.

Particulate matter air pollution is especially harmful to people with lung disease such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Exposure to particulate air pollution can trigger asthma attacks and cause wheezing, coughing, and respiratory irritation in individuals with sensitive airways.

Recent research has also linked exposure to relatively low concentrations of particulate matter with premature death. Those at greatest risk are the elderly and those with pre-existing respiratory or heart disease.

Particulates: Fact Sheet

Particulate matter is the generic term used for a type of air pollution that consists of complex and varying mixtures of particles suspended in the air we breathe. Particles are present everywhere, but high concentrations and/or specific types of particles have been found to present a serious danger to human health.

Particulate matter is a combination of fine solids such as dirt, soil dust, pollens, molds, ashes, and soot; and aerosols that are formed in the atmosphere from gaseous combustion by-products such as volatile organic compounds, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Particulate pollution comes from such diverse sources as factory and utility smokestacks, vehicle exhaust, wood burning, mining, construction activity, and agriculture. Particles of special concern to the protection of lung health are those known as fine particles, less than 2.5 microns in diameter. (For comparison, a human hair is about 75 microns in diameter.) Fine particles are easily inhaled deeply into the lungs where they can be absorbed into the bloodstream or remain embedded for long periods of time. A recent study showed a 17% increase in mortality risk in areas with higher concentrations of small particles. Particulate matter air pollution is especially harmful to people with lung disease such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema, as well as people with heart disease. Exposure to particulate air pollution can initiate asthma attacks and cause wheezing, coughing, and respiratory irritation in individuals with sensitive airways. Exposure to relatively low concentrations of particulate matter may cause premature death according to a recent research. Those at greatest risk are the elderly and those with pre-existing respiratory or heart disease. Air Toxics

Nature and Sources of Air Toxics

Besides the six pollutants for which air quality has been standardized, toxic air pollution is a mixture of those ingredients which are notorious and conceited to cause cancer, genetic mutation, birth defects or other serious illnesses in human beings even at relatively low exposure levels.

Such toxic, cancer-causing ingredients in the air are directly breathed or taken in the form of fine particles into the lungs. Thousands of tons of these toxic and dangerous pollutants are dispersed into the atmosphere throughout the country, by motor vehicles and by both large and small industry, every year.

Such toxic contaminants' exposure should be regulated nationally by air quality standards rather than requiring the use of pollution controls on these sources.

Outdoor Air Pollution: Fact Sheet

It is due to Air pollution mainly that lung disease, including respiratory tract infections, asthma, and lung cancer take place. Each subsequent year more than 3, 30,000

Americans die because of Lung disease and it is the third biggest cause of death in our country. Through the last decade or so, the death rate for lung disease has shockingly increased than any other of the five major contributors of death.

Ozone (O3) is a kind of Oxygen and is an extremely reactive gas, and reacts chiefly from the radiation of sun on hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides which are discharged through fuel combustion. Breathing and living around unhealthful levels of ozone can significantly mare the proper working of our lungs, swelling of the lung lining and respiratory inconvenience, and is connected to hospitalization of patient and also visiting emergency rooms for respiratory dysfunction. Air pollution is also made up of Particulate mattes (PM), a mixture of complex and different substances that consists of carbon form contents, dust, and acid aerosols and these particulates give rise to untimely deaths. Particulate matter air pollution is significantly hazardous to folks with lung disease such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which involves chronic bronchitis and emphysema, and also to patients with heart disease. Subjection to particulate air pollution can initiate attacks of asthma and result in wheezing, coughing, and respiratory irritation for folks with incapacitated airways. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which is a waste product, produced through the burning of fuel at eminent temperatures, can agitate one's lungs and reduce opposition to respiratory contagions such as influenza. Sporadic or sufficient exposure to dense amounts of NO2 that are usually much higher than those generally found in the surrounding air can impact by increasing incidences of acute respiratory illness in children. Chief providers of NO2 are the automobiles and motorbikes contributing 30% and fuel combustion / electrical goods churn 28%. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is produced when "Look up "combustible material" combustible material comprising of sulphur (mainly coal and oil) is burned, and when smelting of metal and other industrial processes take place. Prominent health issues that are connected with exposure to high concentrations of SO2 are breathing effects, respiratory illness, changes in pulmonary defenses, and upheaval of persisting cardiovascular disease. Chief sources are electric utilities (contributing 67%) and industrial combustion of fuel contributes 17% of SO2. In the year 1996, transport sector was contributing as much as 47% of air pollutants. Detailed pollutant examination revealed that 79% of carbon monoxide pollution, in contrast with 31% of nitrogen oxides, 41.5% of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 2.8% of particulate matter (less than 10 microns) and 14.6% of lead dispersed into the atmosphere, is produced through transportation.

Carbon Monoxide

Nature and Sources of Carbon Monoxide

Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a venomous gas at higher levels, when Carbon is not wholly burned in the fuel. It is a colorless, odorless. It is produced through the exhaust of different vehicles, and this collaborates to 0.6 of all CO waste nationwide. In places where traffic overload is immense, generally emits high concentrations of Carbon

Monoxide. As high as 0.95 of all CO emissions, can be produced from automobile exhaust in the cities. Additional contributors of CO are industrial processes, non- transportation fuel combustion, and natural sources such as wildfires. Extreme amounts of CO is discharged within the chillier months of the year when automotive emissions of carbon monoxide are immense and nighttime inversion conditions (where air pollutants are trapped near the ground beneath a layer of warm air) are more frequent.

Effects on Health

It is inhaled through the lungs, entering the bloodstream and decreases oxygen delivery to the different body parts. It is most threatening and devastating for those persons who are infected by cardiovascular disease. When exposed at extreme levels, healthy citizens can also get affected. Visual impairment, reduced work capacity, reduced manual dexterity, poor learning ability, and difficulty in performing complex tasks, can all be attributed to coming in contact with high CO levels.

Lead

Nature and Sources of Lead

In the days gone by, automobiles were a major contributor of lead emissions in the air. Thanks to the EPA's regulatory efforts to decrease the content of lead in gasoline, the lead waste from the mobile sector has declined considerably over the last 10 years. In the current time, processing of metals is the major source of lead emissions in the air.

Lead's greater concentrations are found in the proximity of nonferrous and ferrous smelters, battery manufacturers, and other stationary sources of lead emissions.

Effects on Health

One can be exposed or is exposed to lead primarily by the inhalation of air and the presence of lead in food, water, soil, or dust. It keeps adding up in the blood, bones, and soft tissues. Since, Lead isn't disposed off normally like other food items are excreted; it can also perpetually harm & affect the kidneys, liver, nervous system, and other organs.

Extraordinary contact with lead may cause neurological impairments such as seizures, mental retardation, and/or behavioral disorders. Sometimes at low exposures as well, lead is attributed the impairing of the nervous systems of fetuses and young children, contributing in learning deficits and lowered IQ. Latest research has proven that lead can be a factor in high blood pressure, consequently ending up in heart disease.

Asbestos

What is Asbestos?

Asbestos is the name (Asbestos)1 given to a number of naturally occurring fibrous silicate minerals that have been mined for their useful properties such as thermal insulation, chemical and thermal stability, and high tensile strength. The three most common types of asbestos are: a) chrysotile, b) amosite and c) crocidolite. Chrysotile, also known as white asbestos and a member of the Serpentine mineral group is the commonest." "Asbestos can only be identified under a microscope."

Asbestos differs from other (Asbestos)1 minerals in its crystal development. The crystal formation of asbestos is in the form of long thin fibers. Asbestos is divided into two mineral groups - Serpentine and Amphibole. The division between the two types of asbestos is based upon the crystalline structure. Serpentines have a sheet or layered structure where amphiboles have a chain-like structure. As the only member of the serpentine group, Chrysotile (A, B) is the most common type of asbestos found in buildings. Chrysotile makes up approximately 90%-95% of all asbestos contained in buildings in the United States."

In the amphibole group (Asbestos)1, there are five types of asbestos. As an acronym for the Asbestos Mines of South Africa, Amosite is the second most prevalent type of asbestos found in building materials. Amosite is also known as "brown asbestos." Next, there is Crocidolite or "blue asbestos," which is an asbestos found in specialized high temperature applications. The other three types (Anthophyllite, Tremolite, and Actinolite) are rare and found mainly as contaminants in other minerals. Asbestos deposits can be found throughout the world and are still mined in Australia, Canada, South Africa, and the former Soviet Union."

Why is asbestos a hazard?

Asbestos is made up of (Asbestos)1 microscopic bundles of fibers that may become airborne when distributed. These fibers get into the air and may become inhaled into the lungs, where they may cause significant health problems. Researchers still have not determined a "safe level" of exposure but we know the greater and the longer the exposure, the greater the risk of contracting an asbestos related disease. Some of these health problems include":

a) Asbestosis - a lung disease (Asbestos)1 first found in naval shipyard workers. As asbestos fibers are inhaled, they may become trapped in the lung tissue. The body tries to dissolve the fibers by producing an acid. This acid, due to the chemical resistance of the fiber, does little to damage the fiber, but may scar the surrounding tissue. Eventually, this scarring may become so severe that the lungs cannot function. The latency period (meaning the time it takes for the disease to become developed) is often 25-40 years." b) Mesothelioma - a cancer of the (Asbestos)1 pleura (the outer lining of the lung and chest cavity) and/or the peritoneum (the lining of the abdominal wall). This form of cancer is peculiar because the only known cause is from asbestos exposure. The latency period for mesothelioma is often 15-30 years." c) Lung Cancer - caused by asbestos (Asbestos)1. The effects of lung cancer are often greatly increased by cigarette smoking (by about 50%). Cancer of the gastrointestinal tract can also be caused by asbestos. The latency period for cancer is often 15-30 years. Despite the common misconception, asbestos does not cause head-aches, sore muscles or other immediate symptoms. As mentioned above, the effects often go unnoticed for 15-40 years."

When is asbestos a hazard?

Asbestos is not always an (Asbestos)1 immediate hazard. In fact, if asbestos can be maintained in good condition, it is recommended that it be left alone and periodic surveillance performed to monitor its condition. It is only when asbestos containing materials (ACM) are disturbed or the materials become damaged that it becomes a hazard. When the materials become damaged, the fibers separate and may then become airborne. In the asbestos industry, the term 'friable' is used to describe asbestos that can be reduced to dust by hand pressure. 'Non-friable' means asbestos that is too hard to be reduce to dust by hand. Non-friable materials, such as transite siding and floor tiles are not regulated provided it does not become friable. Machine grinding, sanding and dry-buffing are ways of causing non-friable materials to become friable."

Asbestos: Health and Exposure

Hazard Summary

No studies are available (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 on the acute (short-term) effects of asbestos in animals or humans."

Lung effects are a major (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 health concern from asbestos, as chronic (long-term) exposure to asbestos in humans via inhalation can result in a lung disease termed asbestosis. Asbestosis is characterized by shortness of breath and coughing and may lead to severe impairment of respiratory function and ultimately death."

Other effects from chronic inhalation (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 exposure to asbestos include an accumulation of scar-like tissue in the membranes that surround the lung, pulmonary hypertension, and immunological effects."

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 has not established a Reference Concentration (RfC) or a Reference Dose (RfD) for asbestos."

No studies are available on the (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 reproductive or developmental effects of asbestos via inhalation, and oral studies in animals have not reported any reproductive or developmental effects."

Cancer is a major concern (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 from asbestos exposure, as inhalation exposure can cause lung cancer and mesothelioma (a rare cancer of the thin membranes lining the abdominal cavity and surrounding internal organs), and possibly gastrointestinal cancers in humans. Oral exposure to asbestos may be associated with cancer of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines. However, the evidence on cancer from oral asbestos exposure is not conclusive. EPA has classified asbestos as a Group A, human carcinogen, based primarily on inhalation studies, and has calculated an inhalation unit risk estimate of 2."3 x 10-1 (fibers/mL)-1.

Note: The main sources of information (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 for this fact sheet are EPA's Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), which contains information on the carcinogenic effects of asbestos including the unit cancer risk for inhalation exposure, and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry's (ATSDR's) Toxicological Profile for Asbestos. Other secondary sources include the Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB), a database of summaries of peer-reviewed literature, and the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS), a database of toxic effects that are not peer reviewed."

Environmental/Occupational Exposure

Airborne exposure to asbestos (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 may occur through the erosion of natural deposits in asbestos-bearing rocks, from a variety of asbestos- related industries, or from clutches and brakes on cars and trucks. The concentrations in outdoor air are highly variable." • " Asbestos has been detected in indoor air (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2, where it is released from a variety of building materials such as insulation and ceiling and floor tiles. "Typical concentrations in indoor range from 1 to 200 ng/m3." • " Asbestos may be released to (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 water from a number of sources, including erosion of natural deposits, corrosion from asbestos-cement pipes, and disintegration of asbestos roofing materials with subsequent transport into sewers." Assessing Personal Exposure

It is possible to test for the presence (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 of asbestos fibers in urine, feces, or mucus." In addition, a chest X-ray, although it cannot detect the asbestos fibers themselves, can detect early signs of lung disease caused by asbestos." Health Hazard Information

Acute Effects:

No studies were located on the (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 acute (short-term) toxicity of asbestos in animals or humans." (1-4)

Chronic Effects (Non cancer):

Chronic (long-term) inhalation (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 exposure to asbestos in humans can lead to a lung disease termed asbestosis, which is a diffuse fibrous scarring of the lungs. Symptoms of asbestosis include shortness of breath, difficulty in breathing, and coughing. Asbestosis is a progressive disease, i.e., the severity of symptoms tends to increase with time, even after the exposure has stopped. In severe cases, this disease can lead to death, due to impairment of respiratory function." (1,2)

Other effects from asbestos (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 exposure via inhalation in humans include pulmonary hypertension and immunological effects." (1,2)

Feeding studies in animals exposed to (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 high doses of asbestos have not detected any evidence of adverse toxic effects." (1,2)

EPA has not (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 established an RfC or an RfD for asbestos." (5)

Reproductive/Developmental Effects:

No studies were located (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 on the developmental or reproductive effects of asbestos in animals or humans via inhalation." (1,2,3)

Birth defects were (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 not noted in the offspring of animals exposed to asbestos in the diet during pregnancy." • " No effects on fertility were (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 observed in animals exposed to asbestos in the diet during breeding, pregnancy, and lactation." Cancer Risk:

large number of occupational studies (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 have reported that exposure to asbestos via inhalation can cause lung cancer and mesothelioma (a rare cancer of the membranes lining the abdominal cavity and surrounding internal organs)." (1,2,3)

Individuals who smoke and are also (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 exposed to asbestos have a greater than additive increased risk of developing lung cancer." • " Several occupational studies have (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 reported an increase in gastrointestinal cancer from inhalation exposure to asbestos and subsequent oral ingestion." (1,2)

Long- and intermediate-range (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 asbestos fibers (>5µm) appear to be more carcinogenic than short fibers (

EPA considers asbestos to be a human (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 carcinogen (cancer-causing agent) and has ranked it in EPA's Group A." (5)

EPA uses mathematical models (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2, based on human and animal studies, to estimate the probability of a person developing cancer from breathing air containing a specified concentration of a chemical. EPA calculated an inhalation unit risk estimate of 2.3 x 10-1(fibers/mL)-1. EPA estimates that, if an individual were to breathe air containing asbestos at 0.000004 fibers/mL (2) over his or her entire lifetime, that person would theoretically have no more than a one-in-a-million increased chance of developing cancer as a direct result of breathing air containing this chemical." Similarly, EPA estimates that breathing air containing 0.00004 fibers/mL would result in not greater than a one-in-a-hundred thousand increased chance of developing cancer, and air containing 0.0004 fibers/mL would result in not greater than a one-in-ten-thousand increased chance of developing cancer." (5) Physical Properties

Asbestos is the name applied to a (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 group of six different minerals that occurs naturally in the environment." • " The most common mineral (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2 type is white, but others may be blue, gray, or brown." • " These minerals are made up of long (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2, thin fibers that are somewhat similar to fiberglass." • " Asbestos is neither volatile nor soluble (Asbestos: Health and Exposure) 2; however, small fibers may occur in suspension in both air and water." Potential Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution on Health

Air pollution

Air pollution consists of many types of gases, various and miscellaneous particles that mare the integrity of the air that we breathe everyday. Air is polluted everyday through human being's neglect and improper care throughout the cities and the entire country.

Vehicles and airplanes are the main producers of this kind of pollution, supplemented by industry and construction smoke and dust dispersion in the atmosphere.

In the country it is propagated by dust dispersing through the plowing activity in the fields, trucks and cars driving on dirt or gravel roads, rock quarries and smoke from wood and crop fires.

In many cities, towns, counties etc., it is the ground-level ozone which in the main contributor of air pollution. Ground-level ozone takes place when engine and fuel gases released into the atmosphere mix and react when they come in contact with sunlight. In cities, ozone levels add up when the air is not in motion and the sun is shining bright on a hot, warm day. One shouldn't muddle this kind of ozone with the preferred, benefiting ozone that is miles up in the atmosphere and which saves us from the sun's damaging radiation.

Air Pollution Symptoms

Air pollution can cause eye irritation, throat and lung agitation. Chest tightness, coughing, burning of eyes are usually noticed when exposed to increasing levels of air pollution.

Air pollution can cause distinct and varying reactions from different people. In some cases, chest tightness or coughing is noticed, while others can be absolutely immune or more than partially immune to such pollution. Since exercise requires swifter and exhaustive breathing, so this may add to the symptoms. Some folks are extra sensitive, such as heart or lung patients, when they breathe polluted air and may realize symptoms which others don't.

Military and Rescuers at Risk

Since ordinary citizens are not in constant contact with Air pollutants, the symptoms of air pollution exposure usually go away as soon as the air quality improves.

But firefighters and military people who are in constant with contentious air contents and pollutant, the consequences and impact on their health is huge.

Due to continuous and rigorous nature of their job & service, rescuers and military personnel develop heart or lung disease and react more severely to polluted air.

During times of heavy pollution, their condition may worsen to the point that they must limit their activities or even seek additional medical care. In the past, a number of deaths have been associated with severely polluted conditions. Although pollution this bad is rare today in our Country, but these servicemen and armed personnel are constant risk because they live in such a bad atmosphere and infected surroundings that they develop

Diseases, ailments and irritation of perpetual and risky nature.

War: Detrimental Consequences and Air Pollution

Due to some insipid bone of contention between countries, states, or parties of people, a war takes place. But in the end, war is a result of open conflict between masses.

It is a consequence of unresolved & relentless issues, boundaries, land, resources or differences in beliefs. Sadly, when such differences cannot be resolved peacefully and amicably, aggression cannot be avoided. Devastating repercussions surface with the loss of human lives, wildlife, the marring and damaging of the state of the environment and resources, and future consequences.

We can break the environmental cons of modern war into three periods: the past, present, and future. The past is related with the preparation for war, an example is nuclear weapons testing in the South Pacific. The present is about the apparent effects of war, like the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during World

War II, because of which 70,000 innocent people lost their precious lives. The future refers to the apparent and the perpetual repercussions of war. Apparent repercussions include the burning of Kuwaiti oil fields, spreading air pollution like no other catastrophic event and lasting, long-term cons include Kuwaiti oil spills that still affect the entire Kuwaiti land and atmosphere till this time. The wildlife, habitat, land and water have not been able to recover to their original condition in the region as they were before the Kuwaiti oil droppings in 1991.

There are so many catastrophic and anti-human effects of war but the topic that is being covered here is pertinent to the atmosphere and pollution, especially focusing on air pollution in the aftermath effects of war and conflict. Different aspects of the atmospheric/air pollution are connected to or are affected by each other, for example, the radioactive particles and matter being emitted from the rising clouds as a result of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki gave rise to black rain phenomenon in areas near the bombing vicinity. This black rain marred the sanctity and the condition of lakes, the water table, and even the soil, which provided evidences of radioactive material, even after so many decades of such bombings. Contamination of the air, earth and water affected each other in turn in this example. In the end, pollution impacts plants, animals and humans, either by annihilating human habitats or by directly affecting an organization or a population of living things.

Detailed findings that are examined and explored below are:

U.S.A's atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during World War 2. Burning oil wells of Kuwait, set fire by Iraq in early 1991.

Bombing of Yugoslavia by NATO air strikes in early 1999.

Bombings due to American air strikes on Afghanistan (2001 to present), Russian war with Afghanistan and civil wars within Afghanistan (years prior to 2001);

The use of the Agent Orange herbicide during the Vietnam War.

Nagasaki & Hiroshima

The President of U.S.A made the very critical decision to go on war with atomic bombings on Japan. Closely 70,000 people died from this disastrous event of the then most powerful series of bombs, and after the war, within one season, some 36,000

Japanese citizens embraced death due to injuries earned during the bombing as well as from exposure to radiation. Even though no one is cent percent sure about the no. Of such shameful deaths that took place because of the exposure to perpetual and seriously fatal radiation exposure, but inside 1 mile radius of ground zero, levels of radiation were high enough to cause death. At first, citizens of the affected region at far flung areas from the bomb sites did not show any signs of radiation exposure until one to four weeks after the bombings. Pregnant women within 3,000 feet of the bomb sites all had miscarriages.

Pregnant women suffered from miscarriages or had premature babies who died shortly after birth in area from3, 000 to 6,500 ft. whereas from 6,500 to 10,000 ft, two-

Thirds of all the pregnant women had a miscarriage and/or an affected child. Two months after the bombings, there was an increase of 6% to 27% in the incidences of miscarriage, premature births and abortions. A higher sterility rate was found amongst men and women surrounding Hiroshima and Nagasaki as compared to the rest of Japan. People around Hiroshima and Nagasaki get affected in two ways. They were either exposed to radiation by being under the cloud of radiation when the bomb detonated or they were in an area where there was transport of the pollutant cloud by winds or by molecular diffusion of the radiation cloud to surrounding areas. A black rain that fell in the area around the bombings was the result of the cloud of radiation produced by the blast. Though the radiation deposit in the water table and soil were considered to be minute, radioactive product caesium-137 were detected for many years in the soil following the bombing around Nagasaki. See figures and diagrams, Nuclear Weapons.

Kuwait

During 1991 Iraqi military put oil wells in Kuwait oilfields on fire for nine months. Not only that they also polluted Kuwait and its water sources by spilling 10 million gallons of crude oil into Kuwait and its water sources. This happened during the Persian Gulf War, a war strategy adopted by Iraq to slow down the operations of the opponent

Allied Forces. War and the Environment were on the world stage, and pollution was a weapon of mass destruction.

The burning oil wells produced billowing smoke that clouded the sky and turned it black. Studies show that the temperature of the region dropped 10? C. while the oil wells were burning. As the sun was blocked by thick clouds of smoke no radiation reached the earth's surface, yet the oil wells were at very high temperatures due to the fires. Plants, animals, and humans were affected by the toxic fumes from the fires, oil, radiation from the sun was limited under the blanket of smoke, and soot from oil burning blanketed the land. Iraq's destruction of the destruction of Kuwait's oil field by Iraq caused a loss of five to six million barrels of oil a day during that nine-month period in 1991. Gaseous pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) (primary element in acid rain) were released into the atmosphere, causing black greasy rains to fall in Saudi Arabia and Iran (neighbors of Iraq) and black snow fell in Kashmir (1,500 miles away).

Yugoslavia

Due to internal civil wars and massacre between different ethnic groups in Yugoslavia (mainly Kosovo), bombing strikes lead by NATO forces occurred from March 1999 and ended June 10, 1999. Unfortunately NATO forces hit about 80 oil refineries, and chemical and fertilizer plants. In Pancevo, a suburb of Belgrade, (9.3 miles outside of Belgrade) a petrochemical plant was bombed by NATO forces, resulted in the release of chemicals into the atmosphere, water, and soil. Chemicals like vinyl-chloride, chlorine, ethylene-dichloride, and propylene percolated into the water supply and a toxic gas plume moved near Belgrade as a result of these NATO attacks. The atmosphere surrounding Pancevo and other parts of Belgrade were polluted with toxic smoke produced by huge fires.

Immediate and endangered life effects of humans, plants, and animals were seen immediately, i.e., the toxic chemicals produced resulted in miscarriages, birth defects, cancer, and fatal nerve and liver diseases. Residual effects on the environment have a long-term impact and this is apparent due to: 1) extensive damage to waters in Yugoslavia (affecting agriculture and fishing); 2) an interrupted planting season in Yugoslavia and surrounding regions (poor harvest of food); 3) damage to water and Waste-water systems in Yugoslavia, Albania, and Macedonia; 4) Air and water pollution, as a result of weapons using Depleted Uranium the effects of which are yet- unknown on the water table and the food chain of the region.

Uranium (DU) which is a much heavier material than lead was used in weapons on the strikes in Kosovo, Yugoslavia. It is much heavier than lead so it is favorable for use in weapons such as bullets and bombs. DU can be found in the environment in the form of particles, such as dust from bullets, or in the drinking water. Inhaling or eating

DU particles are absorbed in the body and ultimately its radiation strikes the kidneys and the lungs. The World Health Organization highlights an increase of cases of DU overexposure because of the widely used DU weapons, particularly in areas where DU weapons are used the most, like in Kosovo.

Afghanistan

Afghanistan has had internal civil wars, conflicts with Russia, and War with the U.S. explosives used were not likely to have contained DU, but conventional explosives release toxic compounds like cyclonite (a carcinogen) and per chlorates (damages thyroid glands).Besides pollution another glaring problem faced by Afghanistan is deforestation to harvest timber and to clear land for farming. This result in loss of native species and species that migrate from Afghanistan are two of many other environmental problems Afghanistan faces.

Vietnam

The Vietnam Conflict from 1961-75 between the U.S. And Vietnam introduced a new style of guerilla warfare. Vietnam is a lush, forested country, and the U.S. sprayed and bombed herbicides to kill the bush and plants that provided shelter for Vietnamese forces. Agent Orange, an herbicide was also sprayed in Vietnam. Both of these toxic pollutants have chemicals that adversely affects not only on humans, but plants and animals as well. The toxins from herbicides and Agent Orange were carried throughout the atmosphere and eventually ended up in the soil and water. The chemical toxins caused miscarriages, birth defects, sterility, cancer, and death in humans. Landmines is another factor that have long-term effects on the environment of the place. The entire country is not only polluted by chemicals, but also by landmines. Landmines are a long-term effect of wars, and are common in countries like Cambodia and Bosnia as well as in other places in the world. The U.S. has left a path of destruction in Vietnam and its bordering countries during the Vietnam War by destroying the regional ecosystem and environment of the region.

Conclusion

The price of wars and conflicts has far reaching effects in human lives. Humans have to cope with the consequences of war, including the destruction of the ecosystem and environment, the disappearance of species of plants and animals, and the loss of human lives. The long-term effects of war become manifold and affect many generations, especially when radioactive and atomic weapons are used. The answer to preventing destruction of life and our earth lies with humans. Humans are the ones who go to war and the rest of the earth and its living things have to deal with the effects of war.

What is the answer? Though war seems to be inevitable, yet by weighing in the options of going to war and not going to war, protecting the environment should be considered a factor and worked up

War Gases

The term war gases is inappropriate as the substances used are not gases on all occasions nor are they used in times of war only. These are chemical compounds used in warfare to harm and cripple the enemy forces and civilian population, but if need arises, on other occasions also as for example as to disperse unruly mob.

The qualities essential for a substance to be accepted as war gases are as follows:

1. It must be cheap and in enormous quantities preferably a by-product of some industry.

2. It is definitely toxic in low concentrations.

3. Must be heavier than air so that it will not be easily dispersed.

4. Capable of enough volatilization to spread.

5. It must be stable and not of a type to corrode the containers in which it is stored.

Classification of War Gases

Tear Gases a) Choracetophenone (C.A.P) a finely divided powder with an odor like locust flowers.

A b) Bromobenzyl cyanide (B.B.C.), a heavy oily dark brown liquid with an odor like sour fruit. It may persist on the ground for 30 days in cold climate (Volatilizes slowly).

Ethyl iodoacetate (KS.K) - liquid with an odor like that of pear drops. It may persist on the ground for 10 days in cold climate.

Lacrimators are fired in artillery shells to produce tears and temporary blindness. The high concentration causes irritation of the respiratory passages and lungs, and produces burning sensation in the throat and discomfort in the chest. In cases where exposure is continued for a long time there may be nausea and vomiting, bronchitis, rachitic and blistering of skin. The use of gas mask protects against these substances.

Asphyxiants or Lung irritants or Choking Gases a) Chlorine (Cl) b) Phosgene (COCI) a) and (b) are gases (liquid under pressure). Cl has smell of bleaching powder and phosgene has smell of musty hay. They can be released from tanks, canisters, and gas shells. - Chloropicrin is a yellow oily liquid with an odor like fly paper.

A d) Diphosgene is an oily liquid with smell of phosgene.

Lung irritants or choking gases are chemicals used to kill the enemy forces. They are used in gas shells. Phosgene and Diphosgene are sometimes called 'Green Cross'. Their main action is on the pulmonary alveoli through the upper respiratory passage. It is 2.5 times more toxic than Cl2.

When these substances are inhaled, they cause dysponea, tightness of the chest, coughing and varying degree of irritation of the conjunctivae. Chloropicrin sometimes causes vomiting even in the mask. These symptoms are followed by restlessness, stertorous breathing, cyanosis and collapse. All effects come on within 2 hours after exposure and death may occur within a day or two from pulmonary edema or bronchopneumonia.

Vesicants or Blister Gases a) Mustard gas (dichloroethyl sulphide, yellow cross, pyrite), it has a garlic odor.

A b) Lewisite (Chlorovinyl dichlororsine), it has smell of geraniums.

Both are volatile irritant liquids. They are discharged in artillery shells. They are harmful both in liquid and gaseous forms, vaporize slowly and are very persistent, the mustard being more persistent than the lewisite. The portions covered with mustard gas are poisonous to human occupation for 2 to 4 days.

Mustard gas acts in 2-4 hours after exposure. There is severe irritation of eyes, nose, throat and respiratory passages. The gas attacks through the clothes, the oily portions of the skin and the moistened areas as face, axilla pubes and scrotum. These are formation of blisters (few millimeters to many centimeters). Stomach is inflamed as a result of swallowing the poison causing nausea, vomiting and gastric pain. The lewisite rapidly blisters the skin and inflames the mucous membranes. After absorption, it causes haemolysis of the R.B.C and afterwards may produce signs of arsenic poisoning.

Vomiting Gases a) Diphenyl chlorarsine (D.A) - Colorless crystalline solid.

A b) Diphenylamine chlorarsine (D.M) - Yellow crystalline solid.

Diphenyl cyanarsine (D.C) - White crystalline solid.

These are fired in artillery shells and after explosion permeate air and over landscape. They are solid organic compounds of arsenic and dispersed by heat or detonation in the form of fine particulate clouds or smoke.

A person is poisoned by inhaling air or swallowing food or water contaminated by these chemicals.

Symptoms are intense irritation of nose and sinuses causing excessive sneezing, malaise, headache, salivation, nausea, vomiting, and pain in the chest are prostration. These substances are efficient in destroying morale and are not used for their lethal action. Water and food contaminated may cause to symptoms of arsenic poisoning but a fatal outcome is not common.

Nerve Gases

These are toxic chemicals with action like acetylcholine. These gases are colorless and odorless liquids which produce poisonous vapor on evaporation.

Toxic symptoms follow inhalation of the flavor, swallowing it or absorbing it through skin or conjunctivae. After absorption, the chemical causes inactivation of cholinesterase and consequent acetylcholine poisoning. In a few minutes after absorption of a small amount of vapor, the pupils constrict to pin point size, there is running of the nose and paroxysmal attacks of choking from bronchial constriction. A slightly larger dose produces ciliary spasms, disturbances of vision, pain in the back of the eye balls and photophobia. These disagreeable symptoms are generally sufficient to break the morale of the troops. The absorption of the large amounts of the chemical causes death with severe bronchospasm and almost an immobile chest, low blood pressure falling to shock levels, sudden unconsciousness and bradycardia ending in cardiac arrest.

Asphyxiants (Irrespirable Gases)

Asphyxiants mainly produce respiratory embarrassment. The important asphyxiants are carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, some war gases and Sui gas.

1. Carbon Monoxide (CO)

This is a colorless, odorless, non-irritant gas which can not be perceived by the senses. It is formed by incomplete combustion of carbon and organic matter or burning of carbonaceous matter with insufficient supply of air oxygen. It is almost insoluble in water and alcohol. The sources of CO are many and varied. It is found in disused wells, water gas, coal gas, illuminating gas; and gases resulting from explosion in mines, from dynamite and other high explosives, from improperly regulated charcoal stoves, oil heaters, large oil lamps and gas heaters without efficient flues; and from gases formed in engine and exhaust of motor cars (contains 4-7%); in burning houses and lime burning and lighting gas.

Carbon Monoxide combines with hemoglobin of blood to form carboxyl- hemoglobin which is incapable of carrying oxygen and thus results in tissue anoxia. The affinity of CO for blood hemoglobin is about 300 times greater than that of oxygen. It thus acts as a chemical asphyxiant. It is also a tissue poison, it combines with cytochrome oxidases. The toxicity of CO is mainly due to hypoxia. This explains the high morbidity and mortality of Co in elderly patients, many of whom have preexisting atherosclerosis.