History of Discrimination in the United States

¶ … History of Discrimination in the United States

Discrimination

The Europeanization of North America

Greater than 99% of the population of the United States originated from another country, having immigrated here between the time of Christopher Columbus' arrival and the present day (Spickard, 2007, p. 4). Despite estimates that suggest close to five million Native Americans were living on land that would eventually become the United States in 1492, diseases such as smallpox, typhoid, and cholera wiped out an estimated 95% of this demographic at a relatively rapid pace, thus helping to pave the way for European immigration into North America (Spickard, 2007, pp. 36-37).

The earliest permanent (successful) white settlements included the Spanish in the southwestern territories that would become Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, and on the east coast in Florida (Spickard, 2007, pp. 37-40). The primary goal of the Spanish settlements was economic, but this was not realized except in the gold fields located in what would become Mexico. French settlers took over the northern regions of what would become the United States and Canada, primarily as religious refugees escaping Catholic persecution. The Dutch established outposts in what would become Albany and New York City in order to trade with Native Americans, and the English entered North America along a broad stretch from Canada to the Carolinas.

The first European incursions into North America consisted of mainly small numbers of settlers, but almost immediately entered into conflict with the native population. The White immigrants wanted more land, but this land was already occupied. In 1650 the European population represented just 2% of the population in what would become the United States, but by 1700 it had risen to 10% (Spickard, 2007, pp. 44, 49). The effects of the slave trade were significant and by 1700 a full 2% of the population was of African descent.

Prior to the introduction of African slaves into South Carolina, mosquito-borne disease during the summer months would decimate the population of indentured white agricultural servants working in the rice fields. Africans had natural immunity to yellow fever, were resistant to malaria, and were able to work all day in impossible conditions, so they became the preferred labor source from the late 17th century until the end of the Civil War (Hagy, 1991). This does not imply that disease and hardship didn't ravage the African slave population on a yearly basis, only that more were able to survive the environmental conditions.

The 'Whiting' of North America continued and by 1750, 31% of the population was European and 8% African (Spickard, 2007, p. 63). At the beginning of the 19th century 65% and 15% of the population were of European and African descent, respectively (81). By the mid-19th century the U.S. population was essentially White, with 82% of the population being of European descent (Spickard, 2007, p. 128). White dominance of the United States had essentially reached its pinnacle by this time and rose only slightly over the next 100 years; despite massive numbers of Europeans continuing immigrate to North America.

Two mass migrations occurred, the first between 1880 and 1930 and the second between 1970 and 2001 (Min, 2002, p. 21). During the first period approximately 27.5 million immigrants entered the United States, of which 25.4 million (92.4%) were of European descent (Min, 2002, p. 4). World War II came next and the mass exodus from Europe came to an end. The second mass migration involved immigrants from the Caribbean, Latin America, Asia, and the Middle East. As a result, White hegemony in the United States is gradually losing ground. The most recent U.S. Census data suggests the current White population represents 72.4% of the total (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).

The Consequences of White Hegemony

Discrimination by Europeans was so prevalent that its absence would have represented a remarkable event. If we set aside the more obvious examples, such as Native American genocide and the slave trade, we still find ample evidence of discrimination, even between the different White ethnic groups. Immigration policy in 1790 helped set the tone of government policy when it came to race and ethnicity, since citizenship was limited to "free white person[s]" (Spickard, p. 89). African-Americans who were legally free still could not vote, own firearms, serve on juries, or testify in court against a white person and Native Americans were relegated to reservations under a paternalistic and often ruthless federal government (Spickard, 2007, p. 85).

In the immediate aftermath of the Civil War the federal government took over the South in what was called Reconstruction, with the promise of land, education, and full citizenship for the newly freed slaves (Spickard, 2007, pp. 245-246). The White ruling class in the south formed the Klu Klux Klan in response, in order to frighten the former slaves back into a submissive state. Eventually, the federal government forgot the promises it had made. Indentured servitude was reinstated through the practice of sharecropping, which effectively imprisoned both Blacks and poor Whites through debt, prevented them from owning land, and precluded upward social and economic mobility. The local sheriff and laws provided the legal muscle to prevent the sharecroppers from simply leaving. Segregation took hold and the "one drop rule" created a definition of white that excluded anyone with a non-white ancestor.

In the North, the 1924 Immigration Act helped define what racial qualifications were necessary to become an American (Spickard, 2007, pp. 246-247). At the top were British immigrants who were considered American by default. Next in line were the White protestant and catholic immigrants who arrived prior to the 19th century mass migration. Lower on the ladder were the catholic Poles and Italians. On the bottom rung were the East European Jews. This hierarchy represented the ruling class in America at the time and has defined the racial divides in America ever since. The entry quotas set by the 1924 Immigration Act were purposely designed to encourage Northwest European immigration and discourage it from everywhere else.