M1D1: Concept of Homeland Security Enterprise HSE (Homeland Security Enterprise) was designed to better coordinate the resources of all law enforcement functions that fall under the auspices of the DHS. DHA strives to provide law enforcement agencies with "the tools to identify and combat threats in their communities," including access to its information (Strengthening the Homeland Security Enterprise: Progress Report 2011, 2011, DHS). "Because state and local law enforcement are often in the best position to notice the first signs of a planned attack, homeland security efforts must be integrated into the police work that they do every day, providing officers on the front lines with a clear understanding of the tactics, behaviors, and other indicators that could point to terrorist activity" (Strengthening the Homeland Security Enterprise: Progress Report 2011, 2011, DHS). DHS has created 'fusion' centers "to train state and local law enforcement to recognize behaviors and indicators related to terrorism" (Strengthening the Homeland Security Enterprise: Progress Report 2011, 2011, DHS).

Although the duties of homeland security are often thought of as being relegated to the federal government, local authorities have a critical role in improving the safety of America. Several years after the attack on the Twin Towers, DHS Secretary Tom Ridge noted: "mayors have always held the responsibility to protect their cities as their number-one priority and after 9/11, there was an added dimension to the safety and security of that responsibility, an added dimension of a different kind of threat that you had to help combat" (Smith 2005). Mayors must ensure that local law enforcement is mindful of potential terrorist threats (both organized and individually-based) that can be posed by criminals. They must ensure the security of major city events as the tragic example of the Boston Marathon illustrated all too well.

NGOs (non-governmental) organizations such as the Red Cross have provided invaluable assistance in recovering from tragedies through providing healthcare-related assistance, housing, immediate disaster relief, and other measures to supplement the resources of government aid workers. As such, the DHS can improve its operations by working with such agencies, briefing workers on how best to deal with the unique challenges of situations that can result from terrorist activities as well as providing financial assistance. NGOs can also alert the DHS if they spot suspicious activities during their regular operations.

Even ordinary citizens, however, can be valuable assets for homeland security by being watchful of suspicious activity such as unattended baggage. Also, individuals in workplaces (such as flight schools) who might encounter individuals who act suspicious can act as important resources in combatting terrorism. Citizens from high-risk ethnic groups, the majority of whom are not terrorists, can offer intelligence to law enforcement (which is one reason why racial profiling can be counter-productive, given that it can foster hostile community tensions when outreach to these communities can yield such valuable information).

References

Smith, M. (2005). U.S. mayors' homeland security role highlighted at conference. EHS

Today. Retrieved: http://ehstoday.com/news/ehs_imp_12490

Strengthening the Homeland Security Enterprise: Progress Report 2011. (2011). DHS.

Retrieved: http://www.dhs.gov/strengthening-homeland-security-enterprise

M1D2: Barriers to an All-Hazards Approach

To some extent, I do not agree that emergency management and homeland security have the same 'language.' Homeland security approaches mitigating threats from a police perspective. "While law enforcement officials were concerned with the preservation of evidence, the emergency responses were much as they would have been to a 'regular' disaster -- an act of God rather than an act of man" (Waugh 2004). Ideally, the perspective of agencies such as DHS wishes to prevent rather than simply anticipate and mitigate the threat, which is impossible with hurricanes, earthquakes, and tornadoes. However, it should be noted that there are many commonalities: "all-hazards does not literally mean being prepared for any and all hazards that might manifest themselves in a particular community, state, or nation. What it does mean is that there are things that commonly occur in many kinds of disasters, such as the need for emergency warning or mass evacuation, that can be addressed in a general plan and that that plan can provide the basis for responding to unexpected events" (Waugh 2004 ).

Streamlining the coordinated response of agencies like DHS and FEMA through an all-hazards approach can still be useful given that basic needed responses to major events such as terrorist bombings or biohazards can have considerable organizational overlap. These responses can include coordinating information-sharing, for example, to ensure effective planning. They can also include sharing training facilities and mutual preparation. Secondly, "it is cheaper to develop and easier to remember a single plan even if one has to wade through annexes to provide guidance...

Thirdly, there may be a great deal of overlap in terms of the demanded responses to major disasters, regardless of the cause. Fourthly, one complaint of DHS is that agencies like FEMA that respond with an emergency planning mindset are insufficiently mindful about evidence-gathering -- an all-hazards approach can work to circumvent this. Finally, in the future there may be more overlap in terms of both types of agencies given the rise of biological weaponry, attacks upon basic life functions (such as water and food), nuclear facilities, and other aspects of modern life that require a fusion of both emergency planning and homeland security.