Introduction Air pollution is a significant problem for major urban areas in the modern world thanks to the dependency the burning of fossil fuels for energy. From carbon dioxide emissions released by cars in cities to pollution from coal burning power plants, cities from Los Angeles to Paris to London to Berlin to Beijing face enormous hurdles in addressing this problem—not the least being how to implement various business laws that will help to effectively curb pollution in these cities. This paper will discuss how different cities around the world combat air pollution and what business laws have been applied in their countries with respect to reducing air pollution.

Air Pollution

The problem of air pollution is based on the fact that it is harmful both for the environment and for humans. As the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) under the guidance of the World Health Organization (WHO) has shown, air pollution is a leading “cancer-causing agent” in the industrialized world.[footnoteRef:2] The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the U.S. has shown that air pollution is responsible for acid rain, eutrophication, haze, ozone depletion, crop and forest damage and global climate change.[footnoteRef:3] With so much pollution coming from industries engaged in manufacturing and in energy production, governments around the world are faced with decisions about regulating these businesses in order to reduce air pollution and allowing businesses to regulate themselves (for fear of too much cost being a detriment). [2: S. Simon, “World Health Organization: Outdoor Air Pollution Causes Cancer,” 2013. http://www.cancer.org/cancer/news/world-health-organization-outdoor-air-pollution-causes-cancer] [3: Department of Environmental Protection. “Health and environmental effects of air pollution,” 2015. http://www.mass.gov/eea/docs/dep/air/aq/health-and-env-effects-air-pollutions.pdf]

While air pollution is not solely an effect of industrialization and urbanization (the number one emitter of carbon dioxide in the world actually comes from cows)[footnoteRef:4], cities around the globe do contribute substantially to the amount of air pollution in the atmosphere. That is why the Paris Climate Accord was signed by so many nations in 2016: 195 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) members signed the Accord in order to promote a consensus approach around the world for addressing the problems of air pollution in the most polluted major urban areas of member countries.[footnoteRef:5] [4: Geoffrey Lean, “Cow emissions more damaging to planet than CO2 from cars,” Independent, 2006. https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/cow-emissions-more-damaging-to-planet-than-co2-from-cars-427843.html] [5: Sutter, John D.; Berlinger, Joshua, "Final draft of climate deal formally accepted in Paris". CNN, 2015. https://www.cnn.com/2015/12/12/world/global-climate-change-conference-vote/]

From Country to Country and City to City

From country to country and city to city, there are specific national and local laws in place to address the issue of air pollution. In America, the EPA is tasked with combating air pollution under the Clean Air Act of 1963. Emissions regulations on car manufacturers began to be an issue for manufacturers in the U.S. following the Clean Air Act of 1963. This Act established within the federal government a process of examining air pollution and ways to reduce it. In 1970, the Act was amended to include regulations for auto manufacturing businesses. In that same year, the EPA came into existence as part of an effort to provide oversight and enforcement of the Clean Air Act’s regulations.[footnoteRef:6] Two decades later, emissions controls and regulations were in place across the U.S. to ensure that manufacturers were building vehicles so as to keep carbon emissions to a minimum. Statewide testing of vehicles became a norm for a number of years in many states that wished to conform to federal guidelines. These tests were, however, not cost effective...

In California, for instance, cities like Los Angeles are still subject to emissions testing. But in states like Kentucky, where it was reported that 97% of cars passed emissions inspection, and nearly 100% of new cars passed, many consumers complained that the testing was unnecessary and costly: “Motorists with non-polluting cars paid $1.9 million in fees” just to have it confirmed for them that their cars were, in fact, up to federal standards.[footnoteRef:7] [6: EPA History, 2016. https://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/epa-history] [7: Kentucky Dumps Emission Testing, 2005]
Some cities are doing more than just focusing on car emissions to combat air pollution. Los Angeles is a good example: “Much of the improvements in air pollution levels in Los Angeles during the last few years can be credited to the South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD), an agency which has enforced consistently stricter air quality standards for the region’s 17 million people over nearly 20 years.”[footnoteRef:8]  Los Angeles has also put pressure on businesses to clean up their operations through the “Clean Up Green Up” program, which places restrictions on businesses in various districts with regard to development, such as landscaping regulations and buffer zones between business operations and residences. L.A. has also taken measures to obtain all of the city’s energy from renewable energy sources, like solar and wind power. While roughly half of the city’s energy still comes from the burning of fossil fuels, the city is heading towards clamping down on this source and eliminating it altogether. L.A. is also focused on enforcing tighter regulations on the Port of Los Angeles, which is identified as the “single largest source of air pollution in Southern California, due to the volume of diesel trucks and ships that move through it.”[footnoteRef:9] Every car and truck sold in the United States must comply with emissions regulations set forth by the Environmental Protection Agency.[footnoteRef:10] This is similarly the case in London and in cities across Europe—however, these cities routinely fail to abide by EU regulations.[footnoteRef:11] In Los Angeles, the Clean Air Action Plan is being implemented to help cap maritime air pollution. In another major urban area of California—San Francisco—action is being taken as well: “sweeping air pollution control regulations are being proposed in San Francisco’s Bay Area, potentially affecting up to 1,000 businesses across a range of industries to cover pollution from a variety of sources.”[footnoteRef:12] The goal of the legislation is to lower the carbon footprint of businesses in the Bay Area. [8: MySidewalk, “Combatting air pollution in Los Angeles,” 2017. https://blog.mysidewalk.com/combating-pollution-in-los-angeles-how-one-city-is-improving-air-quality-f6f55cf8d711] [9: MySidewalk, “Combatting air pollution in Los Angeles,” 2017. https://blog.mysidewalk.com/combating-pollution-in-los-angeles-how-one-city-is-improving-air-quality-f6f55cf8d711] [10: S. Furth“A new car will cost you at least $3,800 extra because of government regulation.” The Daily Signal, 2016. http://dailysignal.com/2016/03/28/a-new-car-will-cost-you-at-least-3800-extra-because-of-government-regulation/] [11: Richard Phillips, “Air Pollution: The business concern,” Eco-Business, 2017. http://www.eco-business.com/opinion/air-pollution-the-business-concern/] [12: Richard Phillips, “Air Pollution: The business concern,” Eco-Business, 2017. http://www.eco-business.com/opinion/air-pollution-the-business-concern/]

In London, regulations are tightening as well. According to the city’s own directives, the Mayor is budgeting “more than £300 million to transform London’s bus fleet by retrofitting thousands of buses and committing to phase out pure diesel double deck buses…