Industrialization's economic and social impact on nineteenth-century America

Final Essay: Labor History in the United States
1) What is the most interesting thing you learned this semester?
Despite the efforts by Luddite-like factions of workers in the United States and abroad to prevent it and its major impacts on the country, the relentless industrialization during the mid-19th century emerged as the most interesting thing I learned during this semester. The relentless industrialization during the mid-19th century profoundly impacted the U.S.'s economic, social, and political development.
For example, on the one hand, industrialization had a positive impact on the United States by fueling the rapid growth of cities as well as the development of a large and diversified manufacturing sector. These outcomes also resulted in new employment opportunities and increased economic prosperity among average American workers. Likewise, other positive effects of industrialization included the development of innovative technologies and new industries that were not feasible or possible previously, such as the railroad network that tied the nation together geographically and the steel industry, which helped build the nation's infrastructure.
The total of the preceding positive impacts also resulted in the creation of entirely new industries, such as steel production, which facilitated the growth of American municipalities and the nation's overall economy. In addition, industrialization encouraged the development of major corporations and a corresponding national market that helped the United States become a global superpower in the 20th century. These outcomes, in turn, helped increase American workers' wages and their standard of living. Manufacturing workers in the United States doubled or even tripled their salaries due to increased product demand. These increased wages were because of the increased productivity that resulted from industrialization and the continued introduction of innovative technologies, which enabled companies to manufacture more products at lower costs, ultimately resulting in higher profits and economic growth for the entire nation.
On the other hand, though, industrialization also had some negative consequences for the country, some of which were the other side of the above-listed benefits. For instance, while the growth of corporations resulted in multiple benefits for the nation, these entities accumulated wealth faster than workers, meaning that wealth became concentrated among a few elite members of American society, an outcome that has continued to accelerate. The shift towards industrial production resulted in large disparities between rich owners and poor workers who had no control over their wages or working conditions due to their lack of bargaining power. This led to an increase in poverty and inequality in the United States.
Corporations exerted an alarming increase in influence and power on lawmaking priorities in the United States, exacerbating these income inequalities.
Furthermore, industrialization also created significant environmental problems due to the fossil fuels used in the manufacturing process and the waste products spewed by manufacturers across the country, all of which remain firmly in place to varying degrees today. Many companies are still using fossil fuels and generating waste products that are either disposed of improperly or overflowing landfills and challenging the abilities of Americans to recycle, contributing to global warming in ways that represent an existential threat to humankind. In addition, industrialization has also harmed wildlife by destroying their natural habitats, and the nation's natural resources are being depleted at an alarming rate (Raheem & Ogebe, 2017).
Beyond the preceding negative effects, industrialization in the United States also increased child labor. Young children were increasingly viewed as less expensive and disposable alternatives than adults for factory work. Upton Sinclair's The Jungle showed how American workers were often made to endure dangerous working conditions for minimal or no wages, long hours, no time off, and no job security. Further, industrialization also caused significant displacement in American communities as businesses moved into undeveloped areas, resulting in a land traditionally used for farming being used for industrial activities. This shift disrupted traditional ways of life, leading to social unrest and displacement of people from their homes (Blažek et al., 2020). It is reasonable to suggest that the effects of industrialization on the United States were multifaceted and mixed. Industrialization brought significant economic growth and prosperity, but the process also resulted in social and environmental challenges that continue to affect the country today.
2) What do you think of the politics of Donald Trump?
Discussing the effects of Donald Trump's politics is challenging for several reasons, especially because many of his positive accomplishments are viewed negatively by his detractors and vice versa. Notwithstanding his relentless vilification by the mainstream media and his critics, it is clear that Trump positively affected American politics. For example, despite the tumultuous controversy that accompanied Trump's actions, the former president focused the body politic's attention on what he regarded were the most important challenges facing the country. His economic policies stimulated growth, especially before the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic but even after that in varying degrees.
Even his detractors concede Trump was highly effective in galvanizing the body politic's attention to what he regarded as the main threats to the nation's security. In this regard, a recent article by Navarrette (2022) points out that:
While implementing immigration policies that were dishonest, racist, unfair, cruel, and punitive, Trump's presidency managed to bring immigration to the front page and make it a central part of the national discourse. Pre-Trump, immigration often seemed like it was only a big issue for those living in border states like California, Arizona, and Texas. Now, thanks to Trump, as Republicans like to say, every state is a border state. (para. 8)
By making border security and immigration reform a major national priority, Trump succeeded in focusing lawmakers' attention on this growing threat to national security.
In addition, Trump was also highly effective in leveraging his political clout to appoint numerous conservative judges to various federal courts and the U.S. Supreme Court. This achievement will have a lasting impact for several generations. Likewise, Trump successfully renegotiated the North American Free Trade Agreement in 2018 into a new agreement called the USMCA, which was subsequently approved by the U.S. Congress in 2019 and became effective on July 1st, 2020. In addition, Trump imposed a series of tariffs on Chinese imports to pressure Chinese leaders to change their economic policies, such as intellectual property theft and unfair subsidies for state-owned companies. As a result, the U.S. and China reached a so-called "Phase One" trade deal in January 2020, which included significant concessions from China, including purchasing more U.S.-made goods and services over two years and providing stronger protections for U.S.-held intellectual property rights located within China's territorial borders.
There were other significant accomplishments by Trump in Asia as well. During Trump's administration, he renegotiated free trade agreements with South Korea, eventually resulting in both nations agreeing to eliminate or at least reduce existing tariffs on certain goods, such as cars and automobile parts. The Trump administration renegotiated agreements with South Korea, leading to both nations agreeing to reduce or eliminate tariffs on certain goods, such as cars and automobile parts. In addition, trade agreements with Canada were also renegotiated in America's favor.
Besides ending America's involvement in enormously costly foreign wars, Trump also withdrew from the Paris Climate Agreement because he believed other countries were taking advantage of the United States, forcing foreign nations to revisit their commitment to combating global warming. In addition, Trump signed various executive orders to increase the protections for religious freedoms, advocated for tax cuts to fuel economic growth, and benefited America's middle class by reforming the tax code. Similarly, Trump also pushed for a more business-friendly environment in the United States by eliminating redundant regulations and increasing the nation's spending on defense, a priority that has proven essential in today's troubled world.
Finally, Trump's "warp speed" emphasis on developing and deploying an effective vaccine against the Covid-19 virus likely saved millions of lives around the world, and his efforts to reform the criminal justice system through initiatives such as the First Step Act reduced prison sentences for nonviolent offenders and implemented programming for job training opportunities. In addition, Trump also sought to reduce prescription drug prices for Americans through negotiations with pharmaceutical companies and promoted free speech on the nation's college campuses by signing an executive order that mandated protections for students' freedom of expression at the risk of losing federal funding. As noted above, however, most, if not all, of the above-listed achievements had their detractors due largely to the diversity of interests involved. Still, Trump had a major impact on politics in the United States, irrespective of political ideologies.
3) If you were president, what would you do to improve the condition of workers today?
Some American children grow up wanting to be president. Still, only some hold onto this dream long enough to realize this outcome because people quickly learn that being the president of the United States is a daunting enterprise where even well-intentioned and thoughtful efforts can easily backfire. Consequently, as the president, I would ensure all stakeholders had a voice in my decision-making processes. Still, I would take whatever actions I felt were most appropriate under the circumstances, regardless of the political fallout that might result. Indeed, virtually any funded mandate intended to benefit American workers will cost someone, either the taxpayers (i.e., the American workers themselves) or businesses. In addition, I strive to rise to the occasion by performing my presidential duties in a statesmanlike fashion to achieve the morally excellent leadership required by this position (Hijal-Moghrabi & Sabharwal, 2018).
To this end, morally excellent leadership would include serving as a booster for all American workers. As president, I would improve the conditions for American workers in multiple ways. For instance, I would raise the federal minimum wage to ensure that all workers earn a living wage and can support themselves and their families, pass laws to protect workers from discrimination and harassment and implement national policies to help workers save for retirement and health care during their retirement years. This is a particularly high priority since increasing numbers of American workers are entering their retirement years, and most authorities warn that something must be done now to save the viability of Social Security for the future. (Tienda, 2016). Moreover, I would also promote job growth through tax incentives, investments in infrastructure, and other initiatives designed to create new and meaningful employment opportunities. Providing tax credits and other incentives to businesses that pay a living wage, offer benefits, and invest in their employees' future is also good business sense.
As president, I would also expand paid leave policies such as paid sick days or parental leave so that more American workers can take time off when needed without fearing losing their job or diminishing their income security which makes good business sense. Paid sick leave will allow employees to take time off from work if they become ill or injured outside of the workplace, which would help them better manage their health and prevent the spread of illness among other workers. Paternal leave allows new fathers to bond with their newborns while still receiving pay, allowing them to provide financially for their families while taking care of important familial responsibilities. Furthermore, paternal and maternal leave can reduce stress levels by providing job security and a sense of financial stability during especially stressful times when workers need it most. Likewise, I would negotiate strategic trade deals that prioritize American workers' interests by supporting the growth of industries that provide good-paying jobs. Further, I would also work to improve the nation's education and training networks to give the workers the high-demand skills they need to compete in the 21st-century marketplace.
Perhaps most importantly, I would ensure that all American workers had access to affordable health care, including those in lower-wage jobs without employer-sponsored insurance plans. Far too many American workers, including those in decent-paying occupations, are already struggling to make ends meet during a rise in the inflation rate that is eroding everyone's purchasing power, and only some can afford to pay for family health insurance on their own. When American workers are forced to live from paycheck to paycheck, there is no room for the costs associated with illnesses or injuries or for medications and therapy. In other words, healthier workers are more productive, and everyone benefits in the long run.
As president, I would also strengthen labor laws by making it easier for American workers to form unions and bargain for their rights collectively with their employers concerning wages, benefits, and working conditions. By working with Congress to pass new legislation that strengthens worker protections and requests, I would ensure that all American workers would benefit and that the national economy would benefit from workers enjoying higher discretionary income. In addition, I would also use my executive authority to issue new executive orders or pursue other administrative actions that would enhance worker protections and rights.
There are other ways I could help American workers as president, including increasing the enforcement of existing labor laws so that employers are held accountable for any violations of workplace standards, including wage theft and other forms of worker exploitation. Despite federal and state legislation, many American workers are still exploited in these and different ways that adversely affect their ability to earn a living wage. If I accomplish all of the above, the history books would likely record that I was the best friend to American workers since FDR, and statues of me would pepper the American landscape.
4) Should the USA support a global economy or a closed economy?
It is axiomatic that a rising tide raises all boats, but the historical record confirms that not all vessels are raised equally. Nevertheless, the United States should support a global economy because it is not only in its own best interests but also in the best interests of the international community. A global economy is beneficial for several reasons, especially because it allows for increased international trade, foreign investments, and the sharing of resources that can lead to economic growth and improved living standards for consumers worldwide. In addition, a global economy can also help reduce poverty levels by providing access to new markets, technologies, and skills that can help developing countries increase their incomes, as discussed further below.
In sum, it is generally more beneficial for the United States to support a global economy than a close one since this can lead to increased trade and economic growth. When countries trade with one another, they can take advantage of comparative advantages by specializing in producing goods and services they are most efficient and then selling them in the global marketplace for other goods and services they need. This approach provides countries with greater access to a wider range of goods and services than they could produce on their own, which can lead to lower prices for consumers.
It is also important, however, for leaders in the United States to negotiate fair trade deals that protect the interests of American workers and industries even while aggressively pursuing a global economy. Likewise, it is also important for the U.S. government to implement policies that support workers and help them adapt to the challenges posed by globalization. For example, as noted above, the American government can provide education and training opportunities to allow workers to acquire the skills they need to succeed in a global economy. One of the main arguments against globalization in recent years has been the outflow of American jobs to other countries where labor is cheaper and labor practices are not so rigidly monitored and enforced. Still, even here, developing nations are experiencing greatly expanded economies that are creating the same labor problems that affluent countries have experienced over the past century.
These development efforts are essential to supporting a global economy that addresses many of the shortcomings of a closed economy. In sharp contrast to the benefits that can accrue to a worldwide economy, a closed economy is one in which a country does not actively engage in international trade. Instead, it focuses primarily on producing all the goods and services it needs domestically. This type of isolationism can lead to higher consumer prices and severely limit the country's ability to access a wide range of goods and services. This type of outcome is already being witnessed in the pariah state of North Korea today and, to a lesser extent, by Iran and Russia, which are increasingly suffering from international economic sanctions.
Nevertheless, a country may need a closed economy because it may be necessary to protect its domestic industries from foreign competition. Still, this approach can also negatively affect the country's overall economic growth and development. Indeed, even nations that possess all of the natural resources they need for domestic purposes still need access to innovative technologies only available in a globalized marketplace. In addition, closed economies can make it difficult for a country to access new markets for its goods and services, severely limiting its ability to trade and grow its economy. This eventuality can, in turn, result in a serious lack of diversity in national economies. This outcome can make them especially vulnerable to unexpected shocks and other disruptions in the global economy. Finally, closed economies can also severely limit a country's access to new sources of investment capital, making it difficult for them to invest in infrastructure and other projects that can drive economic growth. In the final analysis, it is reasonable to conclude that isolationism is a suboptimal development strategy doomed to ultimate failure.
5) What should the poor countries of Africa do to improve their conditions of life?
The solutions to the problems facing many of Africa's poor countries are complex and require a multifaceted approach. Some solutions, however, are far more important than others. In this regard, the positive first step towards improving the conditions of life for the people living in the impoverished nations of Africa is eradicating the firmly entrenched corruption that exists at the highest – and lowest -- levels of the public and private sectors (John, 2021).
Fixing this problem first is important because corruption not only drains precious financial resources from already-impoverished African nations but erodes the people's confidence in their private sector, elected officials, and government institutions. It is reasonable to posit that all other solutions to Africa's development needs are predicated on solving this one first. Indeed, despite enjoying abundant natural resources, many in high demand, the quality of life in some African nations, such as South Africa, have declined since gaining their independence from their British colonial masters. Corruption is so ubiquitous in some impoverished African countries that police officers are assigned a daily quota of bribes they are required to turn over to their superiors at the risk of losing their hard-to-get jobs, and African people have come to accept this type of widespread corruption as just part of their lives.
Given its ubiquity and well-entrenched nature, eliminating corruption will take work and time. However, these nations can take some concrete steps that will begin eliminating corruption in poor African countries' societies. For example, poor African nations should establish strong and transparent legal systems because a well-functioning justice system is essential for fighting corruption, as it serves to deter corrupt behavior by providing clear consequences for those who violate the law. In addition, there is an overarching need to strengthen civil society organizations. Civil society monitors government actions and holds leaders accountable for their decisions. By supporting these organizations, poor African countries can help ensure that their governments are held responsible for corruption or mismanagement of public funds.
In addition, poor South African nations should promote the increased transparency of governmental operations. Transparency is essential when combating corruption, as it allows citizens to see how officials are spending public money and if they are following proper procedures. This process, in turn, reduces opportunities for corrupt activities and increases public trust in government.
Although most average African citizens living in poor countries are acutely aware of the practice because they are victimized by it daily, it is also important to increase public awareness of the problem and why it is essential to fix it. Raising awareness of the dangers of corruption can help reduce its prevalence, as it encourages citizens to speak out when they witness or experience any corrupt behavior. Additionally, educating people on their rights and how to report instances of corruption can help empower citizens to take a stand against such activities.
Solving corruption, though, is just the tip of the developmental iceberg facing Africa's poor nations today. The next step in improving the condition of life for the developing countries of Africa is to provide equitable educational opportunities for the children of parents in all rungs of society. Education is essential for alleviating the crushing poverty that characterized the lives of tens of millions of African people today. Investing in educational programs can help people increase their earning potential, allowing them to lift themselves out of poverty.
The penultimate step in improving the condition of life for the people living in the poor countries of Africa is to improve access to healthcare. Although this step also requires improving the continent's physical infrastructure, which is discussed below, there are several ways that this step can be accomplished at the local level. Ensuring that accessible healthcare services are available is critical for reducing Africa's poverty. Providing access to preventive care and treatments can improve the overall health of a population, helping reduce child mortality rates, preventing infectious diseases from spreading, and creating more productive members of African workforces that will enjoy increased earnings potentials.
The final step towards improving the conditions of life for the people of poor African nations is to invest heavily in developing their infrastructure. A lack of infrastructure prevents sustainable economic development in African countries by limiting access to basic services such as water, sanitation, electricity, and transportation networks that facilitate trade and investment opportunities. In addition, improving infrastructure projects could promote job creation, further facilitating economic development.

References Blažek, J., Kv?to?, V., Baumgartinger-Seiringer, S., & Trippl, M. (2020). The dark side of regional industrial path development: towards a typology of trajectories of decline. European Planning Studies, 28(8), 1455–1473. Hijal-Moghrabi, I., & Sabharwal, M. (2018). Ethics in American Public Administration: A Response to a Changing Reality. Public Integrity, 20(5), 459–477. John, V. M. (2021). The Violence of South Africa's COVID-19 Corruption. Peace Review, 33(1), 1–9. Navarrette, R. (2022, December 10). Like it or not: Here are five good things about Trump's presidency. The Daily Beast. Retrieved from https://www.thedailybeast.com/heres-5-good-things-about-trumps-presidency. Raheem, I. D., & Ogebe, J. O. (2017). CO2 emissions, urbanization, and industrialization. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, 28(6), 851–867. Tienda, M. (2016). Economic Implications of Demographic Change: Diversity Dividend or Deficit? Business Economics, 51(1), 11–17.