Human Cloning Is a Controversial

Human cloning is a controversial subject in today's world and for good reason. In a UNESCO report published in 2005 it is related that cloning" may seem to be a relatively recent laboratory phenomenon, but the word itself derives from antiquity: the Greek word klwn for 'twig'." In fact, the use of the term in the beginning was applicable to "...early 20th century botany, designating plan grants. 'Clone' eventually came to be used for micro-organisms as well. Then by the 1970s the word came to designate a viable human or animal generated from a single parent. Over the last few years, cloning has come to mean any artificial, identical genetic copy of an existing life form." In the case where the cloning is by nuclear transfer "...the egg nucleus is removed through a microscopic laboratory procedure and replaced with a donor's nucleus, containing the unique genes of that individual." (UNESCO, 2005) Because the egg "contains only the donor's genes..." The result is that the cloned organism "is a near genetic copy of its sole parent" as compared to the embryo which is a random genetic combination of two parents.

OVERVIEW

In a CRS Report for Congress dated February 25, 2002 and entitled: "Human Cloning" Johnson relates that both moral and ethical questions of a profound nature are raised by the "possibility of using cloning technology not just for therapeutic purposes but also for reproducing human beings." (2002) More specifically Johnson (2002) states: "Cloning, if allowed for human reproduction, could affect society's perception of what it means to be a human being. Uncertainties over a cloned individual's personal uniqueness or freedom to create one's own identity may haunt him or her. Relatives or friends could have specific expectations regarding the cloned individual's talents and abilities. Others might ill treat or discriminate against a cloned individual. Some worry that cloning would lead to diminished respect for human life in general, and for cloned individuals in particular, since the cloned person might simply be replaced with another clone."

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Research questions in this study include those as follows:

1) What are the ethical issues in human cloning?

2) What are the implications of human cloning when considering the various ethical issues?

LITERATURE REVIEW

The work of Alissa Johnson (2002) entitled: "Human Cloning" states that human cloning technology, also referred to as 'somatic cell nuclear transfer (SNT) "has thrust policymakers into the scientific world of genetics research. The debate over ethical and legal issues surrounding the use of cloning for reproductive purposes has led to accompanying public discussion of stem cell research. While this discourse has alerted Americans of the growing role of genetics in health care, it also -- not surprisingly -- has generated much confusion. Policymakers can help to guide the learning process and ensure the formulation of sound public policy for cloning technology with an understanding of the potential uses, benefits and risks of reproductive and therapeutic cloning." (Johnson, 2002) Johnson relates that a total of seven U.S. states have laws relating to human cloning and twenty-seven U.S. states "enforce various laws that govern embryonic and fetal research." (2002) Presently, nine U.S. states "prohibit research on fetuses, embryos or both." (Johnson, 2002)

The work entitled: "The Genetic Revolution" written by Patrick Dixon relates that the intense legal debate over cloning is really concerning "whether or not a new species can be patented. This is driven by huge commercial interests." (Dixon, 1993)There are various applications related to human cloning technology, which includes:

1) swapping of new genes for old;

2) Viruses used to reprogram cells;

3) Artificial insulin derived from genes;

4) Other cell reprogramming methods; and 5) embryo experiments. (Dixon, 1993)

The work of Masahiro Morioka entitled: "The Ethics of Human Cloning and the Sprout of Human Life" relates that the Council for Science and Technology established the Bioethics Committee in 1998. In 1999, the committee stated the conclusion that "human cloning should be prohibited..." (1999) Morioka relates that the government presented the bill "The Law Concerning Regulation to Human Cloning Techniques and Other Similar Techniques" in April 2000. This bill has the following provisions:

1) Article 1 - the cloning techniques and other similar techniques could have a severe influence on preservation of human dignity, safety for human life and body, and maintenance of social order. Based upon these understandings, the purpose of this law is to prevent and restrain creation of a human clone individual and an amphimictic individual, and to regulate artificial creation of individuals similar to such individuals set forth herein, by means of prohibiting transfer of embryos produced by the cloning techniques or the Specific Fusion/Aggregation Techniques into a human or an animal uterus, by means of regulating production, assignment and import of such embryos, and by means of taking [3/4] other necessary measures to secure appropriate handling of such embryos.; and 2) Article 3 - No person shall transfer a human somatic clone embryo, a human-animal amphimictic embryo, a human-animal hybrid embryo or a human-animal chimeric embryo into a uterus of a human or an animal. (Morioka, 1999)

The primary characteristic of this bill was the prohibition placed on the 'transfer' of four specific types of embryos including a "human comatic clone embryo, into the uterus of a human or an animal." (Morioka, 1999) Article 1-3 states the following basic ideas:

1) a human embryo is a "sprout of human life" (hito no seimei no h-ga). No person shall produce or use it without permission;

2) When handling a human embryo, a person must handle it honestly and carefully so as not to violate human dignity; and 3) the production and use of an embryo that has characteristics specific to humans must not lead to the production of an individual. (Morioko, 1999)

The following table lists the 'specified embryos' which 'shall not' be transferred into the uterus of a human or animal for the present.

Specified Embryos, except for ones prescribed in Article 3 of 'the Law Concerning Regulation Relating Human Cloning Techniques and Other Similar Techniques (Law No. 146, 2000)' (hereinafter referred to as "the law"), shall not be transferred into the uterus of a human or animal for the present

List of Specified Embryos

Transfer prohibited by the law

Transfer prohibited by the guidelines

Research prohibited by the law

Research prohibited by the guidelines

Human somatic clone embryo prohibited

Human-animal amphimictic embryo prohibited

Human-animal chimeric embryo prohibited

Human-animal hybrid embryo prohibited

Human split embryo prohibited

Human embryonic clone embryo prohibited

Human-human chimeric embryo prohibited

Animal-human hybrid embryo prohibited

Animal-human chimeric embryo prohibited approved

Source: Moroiko (1999)

Morioka states that a survey was conducted by the Prim Ministers Office in 1998 and the following questions were presented as being 'questionable' in terms of bioethics:

1) Human cloning should not be allowed in terms of human dignity, because humans should be conceived by the involvement of both sexes. 67.7%;

2) the cloned individual will be regarded as a means for attaining a predefined goal, not as a free individual. 43.6% [9/10]'

3) it should not be allowed to intentionally determine the characteristics of a human being in advance. 29.8%;

4) the creation of an individual endowed with specific excellent characteristics might be preferred in the future society. 26.1%;

5) a cloned individual may be exposed to social discrimination. 14.9%; and 6) it is not guaranteed that the cloned individual can grow up in safety. 10%. (Moroiko, 1999)

The work of Weiler (1998) entitled: "Israel Faces the Issues of Human Cloning: A Discussion of the Ethical and Social Implications" states that the cloning of "human beings would be carried out by in-vitro fertilization using (3, 2) the genetic coding of any human cell. Cloning humans has been described by Israeli judicial, Jewish law and ethics publications (4-6) as an impending technology which must be prepared for in ethical, legal and social terms." (Weiler, 1998) Weiler states that the "nihilizaton of parenthood means the removal and eradication of elements relating to the traditional, recognized ontological or epistemological essences of human parenthood, apparently as a result of what seems to be the expansion and development of medical-scientific technology and knowledge." (1998) Weiler states these three aspects include the following:

1) Non-gametic (equivalent to non-sexual) reproduction. In the case of cloning, male human sperm is not necessary to create a normal fetus. Instead, a human ovum or ovum capsule is required together with the genetic coding of a male or female human cell, and a uterus to contain the fetus;

2) Unconditional fertility. With cloning, human reproductive tissue is not required for birth to take place, a single human cell is sufficient. It must be remembered that the potentiality of a fetus developing from a 'regular' cell is built up though latent characteristics. Cloning will enable pregnancy and birth in the absence of either sperm or ovum, and will allow the fetus's gender to be controlled; and 3) Immortality (genetic). Cloning would allow the genetic coding of any individual to be utilized thus enabling the ongoing existence of that human genetic form itself. (Weiler, 1998)

Weiler states that in relation to the offspring the following must be examined closely:

1) a single parent (genetically) of the offspring which is at the same time a genetic sibling. This issue parallels the non-zygotic fertilization;

2) Multiple twinship. Cloning a number of brothers or sisters from the same cell is similar to the case of twins only more extreme due to the intervention occurring in the process of creating this particular "twinship" if we regard human clones as siblings in every sense, should we forbid them sexual relations? Will it be necessary therefore to maintain a strict register of all clones?; and 3) the psychological and social identity of cloned offspring will not be like that of children born without cloning. (Weiler, 1998)

The work of Dixon (1998) entitled: "Reasons Against Cloning" relates the following disadvantages to cloning:

1) Health risks due to mutation of genes - Dixon states: "an abnormal baby would be a nightmare come true. The technique is extremely risky right now. A particular worry is the possibility that the genetic material used from the adult will continue to age so that the genes in a newborn baby clone could be - say - 30 years old or more on the day of birth. Many attempts at animal cloning produced disfigured monsters with severe abnormalities. So that would mean creating cloned embryos, implanting them and destroying (presumably) those that look imperfect as they grow in the womb. However some abnormalities may not appear till after birth. A cloned cow recently died several weeks after birth with a huge abnormality of blood cell production. Dolly the Sheep died prematurely of severe lung disease in February 2003, and also suffered from arthritis at an unexpectedly early age - probably linked to the cloning process;