Hypnosis: mechanisms, applications, and clinical evidence

Hypnosis is widely considered to be an altered state of consciousness in which the subject becomes open to suggestions without being consciously aware of them (Pinker, 2002). In hypnosis for entertainment purposes, subjects are called to the stage and supposedly induced into a hypnotic state. Then, they are instructed to perform actions that they would presumably never do consciously. Themes in movies involving hypnosis typically include post-hypnotic suggestions that are implanted into a subject's unconscious mind and then specific behaviors are triggered by words or other signals to the subject to carry out those subconscious instructions (Pinker, 2002).

Hypnosis has also been used for therapeutic purposes, such as in connection with overcoming phobias and other types of fears or situational anxiety. Hypnosis has also been used for the purpose of overcoming addictive habits such as smoking as well as for the purpose of gaining access to repressed memories (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2008). Around the turn of the century, Hypnotism was widely believed to be a powerful psychological tool and studies conducted by researchers like Ernest Hilgard purported to prove the power of hypnosis to affect human behaviors in quantifiable ways (Pinker, 2002). Later researchers, most notably Dr. Nicholas Spanos challenged Hilgard's conclusions and actually demonstrated through modified versions of his studies that hypnosis is largely (if not exclusively) a function of suggestion and the underlying willingness of the subject to accept the premise of hypnosis (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2008).

Hypnotic Suggestion and Involuntary Actions

According to modern research into hypnotism, it appears that hypnotism may be more a form of focused concentration that is very similar to meditation. In that regard, Spanos effectively demonstrated (among other things) that individuals who subject themselves to hypnosis with knowledge and expectations of what their experiences might be are very likely to believe that they experienced what they expected all along. Meanwhile, individuals who had no such expectations because they were never told what to expect from hypnosis failed to have any of those experiences (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2008).

Likewise, Spanos also demonstrated that hypnosis is largely dependent on the manner in which the hypnotist instructs subjects such as by telling them "your arm feels very light and is rising" instead of asking them whether their arm feels unusual (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2008). The conclusion of most contemporary psychologists is that hypnotized subjects may believe that their actions under hypnosis are involuntary when, in fact, those subjects who are considered "hypnotizable" generally are responding to their expectations and their desire to validate the hypnotist's expectations too. That also would explain why some people are not hypnotizable at all and why hypnotized people generally will not follow directions that they would consider highly offensive when they are not hypnotized (Pinker, 2002). Therefore, this should not be a concern.

Hypnotic Suggestion for Memory Enhancement, Studying, and Pain Relief