Hypnosis Is Shrouded in Myth

Hypnosis is shrouded in myth and mystery. The Internet and bookstores are flooded with materials that claim hypnosis can cure almost any ailment. Psychologists and scientists are raving about the potential for hypnosis to recover memories or heal addictive tendencies. Stage performers use hypnosis -- or a semblance thereof -- to entertain audiences. Since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, hypnosis has become part of New Age spiritual movements. An abundance of conflicting information about hypnosis confounds the lay public. The definition of hypnosis must be clarified in order to begin discussing the merits of the practice. When hypnosis is defined in terms of its healing potential, it is referred to as hypnotherapy. Credible medical and psychological institutions advocate hypnotherapy but only when the practice relies on scientifically tested methods and trained practitioners. Hypnotherapy also has the potential to illuminate questions related to memory, cognition, and consciousness. Critics of hypnotherapy claim that the practice leads to the recovery of false memories and has no genuine clinical applications. Distinguished from hypnotherapy, hypnosis is the practice of mesmerizing a subject regardless of end results. At its best, hypnosis is a form of harmless as well as mindless entertainment. At its worst, hypnosis can be used for psychological manipulation or deception. Many critics of hypnosis cite religion or superstition for their opposition. In spite of the prevalence of chicanery, hypnosis and hypnotherapy both offer tremendous potential for scientific research.

Hypnotherapy for Healing

The Mayo Clinic claims that hypnotherapy "appears to help with a variety of health conditions, when provided by a certified hypnotherapist or other qualified clinician." The range of ailments and psychological complaints that hypnosis can help is extensive, including both somatic and mental distress. For example, hypnosis can and is used to treat physiological disorders such as asthma, warts, and psoriasis (Mayo Clinic). Pain relief, including the ease of childbirth pain, is another application of hypnosis (Mayo Clinic). Hypnotherapy can also be applied in the treatment of phobias, or for the reduction of anxiety or stress. Hypnosis and hypnotherapy are offered usually as adjunct therapies, administered in conjunction with traditional counseling or psychological interventions (Chakraburtty). When hypnosis is applied in a clinical setting, it may be viewed as a "method of communication," (Pearson). Likewise, Knight refers to hypnosis as a "particular form of communication" between the self and the self or between the therapist and the client (11).

Formal theories and practices about hypnosis have added credibility to the argument in favor of using the technique for healing and research purposes. For example, Eriksonian hypnosis is based on the theories and techniques devised by Milton Erikson during the 20th century. Erikson's methods have been empirically studied, the research peer reviewed and published in scholastic journals. Erikson also helped start the National Association for Clinical Hypnosis (Pearson). Other professional organizations that focus on hypnosis as a form of clinical therapy include the Society of Psychological Hypnosis, which is a division of the American Psychological Association. Certification depends on more than 200 hours of professional training in addition to their primary field of expertise (Mayo Cinic). Hypnosis has been the subject of "rigorous scientific inquiry" and has led to the publication of "thousands of articles" in peer-reviewed journals (Yapko 5). The credibility of the institutions that advocate hypnosis as a form of valid therapy proves that hypnosis and hypnotherapy have great medical benefits.

Hypnosis Research

One of the most promising applications of hypnosis and hypnotherapy in the sciences is in the field of cognition. Just as with hypnotherapy in a clinical setting, hypnosis in a laboratory setting can illuminate some of the most pressing issues related to human consciousness. A recent study reveals "real" brain effects that are distinguishable from those that occur during simple relaxation exercises ("Hypnosis Has Real Brain Effect"). These recognizable changes in the brain can be capitalized on, used for healing and possibly even deeper understandings of how we dream or how we can develop a talent for music, language, or literature. Hypnosis can unveil differences in human communication patterns. As Yapko points out, "the study of hypnosis offers substantial insights into how human beings construct their individual realities," (6). Hypnosis can be used in sports therapy, or other fields in which mental focus can aid performance. For example, "hypnotherapists can help athletes visualize what they want to accomplish before they perform it physically, such as shooting baskets or hitting a golf ball," (Mayo Clinic).

Hypnosis and hypnotherapy are not monolithic practices. Therefore, the different types and techniques of hypnosis should be clarified. Self-hypnosis or autohypnosis is one type of hypnotherapy, which takes advantage of the individual's "inborn capacity" to enter the hypnotic state (Knight 11). Self-hypnosis has the added benefit of increasing the individual's self-esteem and self-confidence, as the practice can encourage greater control over mental and emotional states (Knight 12). Yapko agrees, encouraging psychotherapists to learn how to administer hypnosis for the express reason of increasing their clients' self-reliance and self-sufficiency. One of the areas in which hypnosis can have a clear positive effect is with treating insomnia. Rather than relying on potentially addictive medications, a client can learn self-hypnosis or seek professional hypnotherapy (Knight 12).

Other types of hypnosis or hypnotherapy include those in which the client works with a trained professional. The hypnotizer helps the client achieve a relaxed state of mind, but one that includes mental focus and concentration. Scientific researchers and clinical therapists define hypnosis as a state of relaxed mental focus. Hypnosis is a natural state of mind that can be loosely described as a more focused version of daydreaming (Knight 12). The therapist uses this state of mind to help the client achieve his or her goals. In some cases, the therapist offers the patient suggestions, usually in verbal form but possibly also in the form of images. This type of hypnosis treatment is most useful in pain management or relief from addictions and is a widely used intervention (Chakraburtty).

In other cases, the therapist uses the hypnotic state to conduct traditional therapy. For example, a client who has difficulty opening up during sessions might do so while under hypnosis. "This approach uses the relaxed state to find the root cause of a disorder or symptom, such as a traumatic past event that a person has hidden in his or her unconscious memory. Once the trauma is revealed, it can be addressed in psychotherapy," (Chakraburtty).

Before hypnosis became accepted within the scientific community, the practice was closely tied with mysticism and the occult. Science has dispelled many of the myths associated with hypnosis, and the practice was already beginning to be researched empirically in the 19th century. For example, Jean-Martin Charcot is credited with establishing hypnosis as a "legitimate subject of scientific inquiry," (Waterfield 217). It was Charcot who first demonstrated that hypnosis did not lead to a surrender of the self and that persons could not be made to act against their will (Waterfield). Charcot was interested in magnetism, "metallotherapy" and other pseudo-sciences but he aimed to bring those topics under the light of scientific scrutiny (Waterfield). Charcot was himself a physician, and he worked with Charles Richet in the study of hypnosis. Richet was the recipient of the 1913 Nobel Prize in Medicine (Waterfield). Charcot was particularly interested in how hypnosis could help patients with hysteria, which was an umbrella term used to describe what clinicians would today call those with anxiety or panic disorders (Waterfield).

Hypnosis is not an instant cure-all to any problem and is never presented as such by any credible course. Hypnosis should also not be viewed as a stand-alone treatment or one that substitutes from other constructive approaches to healing (Yapko). Stage hypnotists and charlatans have distorted the concept of hypnotherapy. Therefore, problems with hypnosis are not with the technique itself but in how claims about hypnosis are presented.

Almost all anti-hypnosis sources lack credibility; they are not published by professional or academic organizations and present their material in a biased fashion. Some anti-hypnosis sources lack credibility because they narrowly define hypnosis or misunderstand its function or application. The only credible anti-hypnosis sources are those that cite false memories as a reason to ban testimony obtained under hypnosis in courts of law. Indeed, false memory creation is a real problem. This is why courts of law are banning witness testimony obtained under hypnosis. The phenomenon of false memories actually enhances rather than detracts from the efficacy of hypnosis as a therapeutic intervention. If false memories can be created, then surely the state of hypnosis is powerful enough to create positive changes in the human psyche. Arguments against the validity of hypnosis include the following.

Hypnosis Creates False Memories

Openness to suggestions is also a hallmark of hypnosis, and that openness remains one of the most controversial topics in the study of hypnotherapy. A client's openness is precisely what makes hypnosis a helpful intervention to treat addictions, phobias, pain, and other medical issues. The therapist uses the client's open state of mind to offer suggestions, and if the client is motivated then those suggestions can become part of the person's mental repertoire. Scientific research has proven how valuable hypnosis is in relieving the symptoms of mental and physical ailments.

However, the open state of mind that hypnosis creates can be misused and abused. One area in which abuse is possible is in the planting of false memories. False memories are not always directly or deliberately planted. In some cases, the simple suggestion that some event might have occurred is enough for a client to believe that it did take place. Once the idea is formed, the person perceives that thought as a "memory."

Loftus outlines a series of case studies that show that hypnosis has been and still is used to coax "memories" out of people, usually women or children. Unscrupulous psychiatrists or hypnotherapists might plant memories of physical or sexual abuse. False memories can pose serious legal problems for defendants but also for psychiatrists. One woman sued a psychiatrist for planting false memories; the case was settled out of court for $2.4 million (Loftus). Even scarier is the possibility that false memories make their way into case evidence, used to convict someone of a crime they did not commit. The possibility that false memories might be misused in courts of law, any testimony recovered under hypnosis is taken lightly in courts of law or even banned. In 2007, the Canadian Supreme Court banned the use of testimony obtained under hypnosis because the information is "not scientifically reliable," (Tibbetts). Witnesses tend to strongly believe what they experience in the state of hypnosis, even if those "memories" are false or planted there by a therapist (Tibbetts). Loftus notes, "misinformation can change an individual's recollection in predictable and sometimes very powerful ways." Rather than negate the efficacy of hypnosis, such information substantiates claims that the procedure has clear clinical applications and should be researched more. More than one hundred years ago, Charcot understood that hypnosis could be misapplied and used in the creation of false memories (Waterfield). However, the misapplication of the practice in no way detracts from its validity.

Hypnosis is a Farce

Another anti-hypnosis argument is that the practice is not real. Some researchers claim that practitioners have fabricated data, "sensationalized treatment results," and made outlandish claims about the efficacy of hypnosis and its scientific potential (Yapko 5). This is true, but all fields of scientific research are subject to charlatans, which is why peer-reviewed journals and professional organizations like the American Psychological Association are stepping in to regulate and monitor hypnosis research. The "cheesy stage acts" that Yapko refers to are also to blame for the notion that hypnosis and hypnotherapy are false (5). Cheesy stage acts pretend to use hypnosis to make audience members act like chickens or perform silly acts. In the days of Mesmer and spiritualism, hypnosis was viewed as a sensationalist practice or a parlor game. In the worse cases, greedy performers would manipulate people into handing over money. Untrained hypnotherapists are guilty of the same practices, manipulating the public into believing that their ailments can be cured. A quack in hypnotherapy is no different from a quack in any other field. Hypnotherapy must be carefully distinguished from stage hypnosis, and research-based hypnosis must likewise be discerned from chicanery. Cheesy stage acts should not be confused with the genuine application of hypnosis in a clinical or laboratory setting.

Hypnosis is sometimes presented in the media as a "pseudo-science" (Tibbetts). In fact, the argument that hypnosis is a farce is sometimes issued directly from a scientific community. Not all clinicians or scientists support hypnosis or hypnotherapy as a valid treatment intervention. For example, strict behaviorists argue that the subjectivity of hypnosis automatically disqualifies it from empirical research (Fromm & Shor). Only by measuring observable behaviors can the technique be proven. Therefore, a behaviorist might agree that the practice of hypnosis -- regardless of what the state of mind represents -- is one that can lead to measurable effects such as smoking cessation. Research into hypnosis will show which areas the practice leads to measurable effects. Hypnosis has become integral to clinical research and counseling practices. Research-based, academic, and professional institutions endorse hypnosis when it is practiced correctly. Because of the credible scientific data backing up hypnosis and hypnotherapy, the claims that hypnosis is a pseudo-science are falling apart.

Only Certain People Can be Hypnotized

One of the arguments against the use of hypnosis is easily unsubstantiated. The argument is that hypnosis only works on certain people and is therefore not a valid practice. People who are fantasy-prone are easily hypnotized, whereas "those who think hypnosis is rubbish can't be hypnotized," (Carroll). Carroll also claims that "the usual personality traits measured on the typical personality inventory such as the Myers-Briggs or introversion/extraversion scales do not correlate well with hypnotizability." Indeed, this may be true. However, motivation is more important than personality. The Mayo Clinic claims that hypnosis "seems to work best when you're highly motivated and your therapist is well trained." The key is being motivated and working with a qualified professional. A qualified psychologist or psychiatrist should be able to determine which persons would be best suited for hypnotherapy intervention.