Native colonizers and Spanish frontiers in early American colonies

¶ … history of the native American Indians is a long and colorful one. The first Indians arrived on the North American continent subsequent to the end of the Ice Age approximately 15,000 years ago. These early Indians arrived from Siberia as they passed through Alaska and gradually settled throughout what is now the United States. These early arriving Indians were hunter-gatherers and, as a result, they traveled freely across the vast North American continent and by 8,000 years ago had spread as far east as the eastern seaboard.

As indicated, the early Indians were hunter-gatherers and many of the tribes remained such until the early 1900's but a select few tribes began farming. The Indian tribes electing such life style were centered in present day Mexico City and by the time that this area began to be explored and settled by Europeans the farming life-style of these Indian tribes had been well-established as the process of farming transitioned from a mere supplement to the hunting and gathering activities of most Indian tribes and farming developed into a full time activity.

By the time that Christopher Columbus landed in America Indians lived on the full extent of the North American continent but the arrival of Columbus signaled the beginning of the end for the Indians. Never having been exposed to the various diseases that the European explorers brought with them, the Indians had never had the opportunity to develop immunities. The result was a massive extermination of the Indians that drastically reduced their numbers; numbers that they would never be able to replenish.

When Columbus landed, the Indians living in North America were highly diversified. Every tribe, of which there were hundreds, enjoyed their own language, their own culture, their own religious beliefs. Although white culture has grouped them all together and considered them as one, there was more diversification among the Indian tribes than there was among the white settlers that were beginning to dominate the continent.

Relationships between the Native American Indians and the Europeans settling in America were originally quite friendly as the Indians were eager to trade with the Europeans for manufactured goods but as it became obvious to the Indians that the settlers were planning to remain and to do so by occupying land that once belonged to the Indians matters turned acrimonious.

As European migration to North America increases the relationship between the settlers and the Indians continues to deteriorate. By the early 17th century Europeans outnumber the Indians on the continent and the Europeans have begun to push the Indians westward as the Europeans begin to push their settlements closer and closer to the Appalachian mountains. Periodically, the Indians mount attacks on white settlements but, in most cases, the aggression is precipitated by the white settlers. The Indians want to be free to hunt and fish but the Europeans are more interested in procuring more and more of the Indians' land.

The end of the American Revolution did not bode well for Native Americans. The end of the War signaled the beginning of an increased surge of settlement west of the Appalachians and border skirmishes between settlers and Indians. One group trying to obtain more property while the other group attempting to foreclose the westward movement.

The history of the Native Americans as the United States continued to expand is not a good one. The acrimony between the two groups intensified and the white settlers began to characterize the Indians as savage, uncivilized pagans who needed to be neutralized and converted. The proud Indians viewed the situation differently and they fought hard to defeat the westward movement of the white settlers lacking the numbers and technology available to the white culture the Native Indians were fighting a losing battle. By the end of the 19th century, the Indians' struggle to protect their communities and their cultures has come near an end. The tribes that once controlled an entire continent were now relegated to small reservations where their hunting-gathering societies were forcefully extinguished.

2.

The most commonly recognized beginning date for the colonization of the area known as America began with Columbus' landing on the North American continent. There were earlier explorations but Columbus' missions to the New World encouraged the process of colonization. At first, the colonization began slowly and the groups that did venture to the Americas were there seeking agricultural products that were not available in Europe. This early activity was light but as the Reformation began to spread in Europe, there were increased numbers of European immigrants looking to flee religious persecution and the Americas offered an opportunity for these individuals to practice their individual religion freely. Entire colonies were established dedicated to the practice of specific religions. The Puritans in Massachusetts, the Roman Catholics in Maryland, and the Quakers in Pennsylvania founded entire colonies where the practice of their individual religions were guaranteed.

The promise of land also served as a motivation for increased colonization. Most Europeans were unable to own private property due to the class system that had operated throughout Europe for centuries and this factor combined with the newly defined concepts of individual freedom and liberty motivated increased immigration. America offered new opportunities and chances for social advancement that was foreclosed for most in Europe.

The colonization of America had an impact on two other cultures: Blacks from Africa and Native American Indians. Both cultures were essentially destroyed as the white Europeans brought Blacks to the Americas and forced them onto slavery while the white Europeans, at the same time, continued to push the Indians farther and farther westward.

The American colonies were essentially the exclusive province of the British Empire. The British recognized early that the colonies could be used as an economic benefit and, against this background, the mercantilism system was developed. Under mercantilism, the American colonies were used to provide raw materials to the Empire and, in exchange, the Empire provided the colonies with manufactured goods. For the most part the American colonies were self-governing through most of their history and this pattern of self-governing contributed to the political upheaval that would eventually result in the American Revolution. The colonies became used to managing their own affairs and when the British Empire began to apply greater pressure on the colonies in order to finance its military operations throughout the world, the colonies began to balk at the higher taxes and tariffs being applied. The colonies began to question the advantages available to them as British subjects where they were unable to participate in the decision making process. The fact that the colonies had been allowed for several decades to be self-governing entities contributed to the problem and the tension between the colonies and the British crown increased as the British realized that they were losing control over the operation of the colonies.

Although history tends to concentrate on the colonization that took place in the thirteen colonies that boarded the Atlantic Ocean, colonization was taking place in Florida and the Southwest. This colonization was taking place in the Spanish style where large settlements were not established like they were on the East coast but, instead, the Spanish established a small ruling class that used the area as a source for natural resources and allowed the long time native residents to live much as they always had. The Spaniards did not attempt the wholesale displacement that characterized the settling of the Thirteen British colonies. This colonization style would contribute to the eventual demise of the Spanish holdings in the New World.

3.

The Spanish approach of colonizing the Americas was much different than the approach utilized by the British. Like the British Spain viewed their colonizing efforts as a method of increasing trade as the New World provided goods that were largely unavailable on the European continent but the Spanish government, being deeply committed to the Catholic faith, also used colonization as a way of promoting Catholicism and converting the Native Indians who the Spaniards considered to be pagans and in need of saving

The Spanish monarchy was aggressively began its exploration and colonization of the Americas. Within a few short years after Columbus' arrival in the New World, Spain have begun its effort toward colonization and its efforts did not end until the waning years of the 19th century. The Spanish efforts were concentrated in the islands of the Caribbean, South and Central America, and Mexico. These efforts extended northward from these bases and included most of what is the area west of the Mississippi River. In all these areas, despite the fact that the Spanish have been absent for as much as two centuries, the influence of the Spanish and the Catholic Church remains strong.

In sharp contrast to the British and French efforts at colonization, the Spanish style was far more militarily oriented. The reasons for this are several but it must be understood that the areas colonized by Spain were far more civilized and established than the areas colonized by the British and French. When Spain began colonizing in the New World they found well established and sophisticated cultures in the form of the Incas, Aztecs, and Mayans. These cultures provided far more resistance than that offered by the Native Indians encountered by the French and British and the Spanish were forced to exercise their military power in order to maintain control of the area.

Another difference between the colonization efforts of the Spanish and those of France and England was that the Spanish never made any wholesale effort to establish new colonies in the New World populated by Spanish citizens. Spain never attempted to establish new settlements. Instead, the Spanish viewed their mission as one of conversion and saving the Native Indians and of stripping the area of as much of its natural wealth as possible.

Perhaps the biggest impact left by Spanish colonization was the fact that the intermarriage of the Spanish explorers and conquistador with the Native Indians tribes led to a new race of people, mestizos. The two cultures were highly diverse but combined to form a unique culture that prospers to this day.

Spain's presence in the New World lasted far longer than either France's or England's. Until the end of the short-lived Spanish American War, Spain maintained at least a marginal presence in the Americas and culturally their presence was much longer in that it left its language and religion throughout most of the area south of modern day United States. Throughout the years of Spain's presence in the New World, the Spanish monarch benefited more from its colonization efforts than any other nation that attempted to establish its presence in the Americas. Following the defeat of the Spanish Armada by the British fleet the power of the Spanish monarchy began to wane and the ability of the Spanish government to monitor the activities of its colonial interests in the Americas began to suffer as well. As time progressed, the individual colonies began to seek independence from Spain but Spain's cultural influences remained strong and these influences remain strong to this very day.

4.

Spain's foothold in North America began with Ponce de Leon's exploration of what is now the State of Florida. Leon's exploration began a 300-year presence by Spain in the Americas that witnessed Spaniards establishing settlements, building forts to defend the monarchy's interests, and erecting hundreds of missions to promote the spread of Catholicism. In these three hundred plus years Spain impacted significantly on the lives, institutions, and environment of not only the Spanish citizens that participated in these activities it also the societies and cultures of the Native Americans that were encountered.

What began with Ponce de Leon in Florida expanded westward all the way to California and south through the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. Although the Spanish have been criticized for essentially plundering the areas into which they expanded, in reality, the Spanish missionaries, soldiers and traders who explored the Americas left important influences.

Following Ponce de Leon's attempt at establishing a Spanish presence, conquests by Coronado and de Soto expanded Spain's efforts and the first Spanish settlement in North America was established at St. Augustine in Florida in 1565. Villages along the Rio Grande valley in New Mexico followed. The present city of Sante Fe, New Mexico was one of the first such settlements. By the time that the American Revolution had begun in the American colonies, Spain had established settlements spanning from present day San Francisco through southern California, across Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. These settlements comprised the Spanish frontier in North America. The purpose of these settlements was to provide a protective barrier shielding the more important parts of the Spanish empire that lay to the south in Mexico and the islands of the Caribbean.

One of the more interesting problems encountered by the Spanish was their relationship with the Pueblo Indians. Although the Pueblos were a largely peaceful tribe they had long harbored ill feelings toward the Spanish and their efforts to rid the Pueblos from observing their traditional religions and for forcing them into forced labor. On the other hand, however, the Spanish had also assisted the Pueblos by introducing this farming tribe to new farming technology and equipment that benefited the Pueblos economically. In the end the Pueblos and Spanish lived in relative peace on the Spanish frontier from most of their history but both cultures had occasional disputes that disrupted their relationship. In typical style, however, whenever the Pueblos would attempt to assert their independence from the influence of the Spaniards, the Spaniards would exercise their superior military might and calm the Pueblos' attempts at throwing off Spanish control.

The Pueblos were not the only Indian culture to attempt to minimize the power of the Spaniards. Periodically other tribes attempted similar actions but the power of the Spanish forces proved to be too formidable. Unlike the British forces in the American colonies the Spanish forces in North America established a stranglehold in the Spanish holdings in North America and never allowed any serious attempt to be mounted. Spain exercised their authority with an iron hand throughout the nearly 300 years that Spain maintained a presence in the Americas. Aided by the influence of the Catholic missionaries and the power of the Spanish armies, Spain was able to maintain peace and order along its frontier borders

5.

The Iroquois Indians played a highly significant role in the history of the Canadian nation. The Iroquois' ancestry can be traced back in Eastern North America to at least 500 B.C are linguistic related to a number of other Indian tribes such as the Huron and Cherokee.

The beginning of the Iroquois influence in Canadian history developed as a result of their acrimonious relationship with the French who originally settled in the Canadian area. The original French settlers developed close relationships with many of the enemies of the Iroquois nations which led to the Iroquois and French often finding themselves at war over minor issues. Over a period of fifty years in the late 17th century the French settlers in Canada and the Iroquois were engaged in skirmishes all along the Canadian frontier.

The relationship between the French, the British who were beginning to establish a presence in Canada, and the Iroquois changed considerably as the 18th century began. The Iroquois leaders determined that they could not afford to continue battling the white settlers. The Iroquois numbers had suffered significantly due to disease and warfare so the Iroquois decided to maintain a position of relative neutrality as to both nations. This position was altered somewhat by the events of the French and Indian War. The Iroquois were fearful of British expansion into Canada and saw them as a greater threat to their welfare than the French but were persuaded to side with the British in the War. The Iroquois had always maintained a much closer alliance with the French but this alliance during the War was tenuous at best and the British offered to protect the Iroquois interests and fears against further expansion of the Americans into their territory. As a result, the Iroquois battled on behalf of the British. After the War, as a reward for their assistance, the British banned any expansion west of the Appalachian Mountains by the American colonists in order to protect Iroquois lands but this was largely ignored by the colonists and the Iroquois lands were further threatened.

As the American Revolution began the Iroquois again threw their support to the British Loyalists against the revolutionaries. Like they had in the French and Indian War, the Iroquois decided that the formation of a new government in the colonies presented a greater threat to the Iroquois Nation than did the British. The British did not represent a continuous presence in the areas where the Iroquois lived while the colonists kept pushing further and further into Iroquois lands. Throughout the War the Iroquois assisted the British army in their attempts to defeat the American Revolutionaries. This assistance included attacking the American Revolutionaries from the periphery and providing guide services for the British military. This time the Iroquois found themselves choosing the losing side and their presence in the lands south of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River was threatened forever. When the War ended the remaining Iroquois in the newly formed United States emigrated northward toward Canada seeking refuge. The British, like that had following the French and Indian War, again recognized the assistance of the Iroquois and awarded the Indian nation with a large land grant on the Grand River. It is here near the village of Brantford that the Iroquois nation settled. This settlement was threatened as European settlers began arriving in the area and the Iroquois were again forced to move further into the Canadian wilderness.

6.

The Colony of Virginia was an English colony that existed during the period from the 16th to 18th century. It was named by Sir Walter Raleigh and the area was continuously known as the Colony of Virginia until it became a state in the United States following the American Revolution. At such time the colony was renamed the Commonwealth of Virginia. Prior to its becoming a state, however, the area of the Colony of Virginia was much larger. Eventually, the states of West Virginia (formed during the Civil War), Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio were all formed from land that formally belonged to the Colony of Virginia.

The name Virginia is believed to be derived as a reference to Queen Elizabeth I's status as the "Virgin Queen, " in any event, the use of the name Virginia is the oldest name used to designate an English presence in the New World. Sir Walter Raleigh was the first of the British explorers to visit the area and he named the entire eastern seaboard stretching from North Carolina northward into Canada, Virginia. This entire area was the subject of much dispute between the competing nations vying for control of the area but it was the British who eventually established the first settlement in what would become modern day Virginia. Again, it was Sir Walter Raleigh who was instrumental in settling what would become the Colony of Virginia. In 1584, Raleigh sent a mission to establish a settlement on the Island of Roanoke. The settlement did not survive but the effort did represent the British interest in establishing further settlements in the area. Raleigh sent an additional mission to the area several years later. Again, this settlement did not survive but the first birth of a child, identified as Virginia Dare, born to European settlers was recorded.

Politic events inside England forced the British crown to intensify its efforts to establish a permanent settlement in the New World. The British were in significant need for natural resources such as wood to replenish its diminishing supply. This need led to the formation of a mission that eventually established the first successful English settlement in America known as Jamestown. The Jamestown settlement struggled to survive but through the efforts of several different individuals sailing back and forth to England in an effort to resupply the settlement it did eventually survive. New settlers arrived from England pushed further and further inland into what had once been wilderness. Interestingly, it was only by chance that the Colony found a crop that led to its ultimate success as a colony. A business man who had originally lived in the Jamestown settlement came upon a strain of tobacco seeds that turned out to prosper in the Virginia soil and climate and this strain of tobacco developed into a successful product for the young colony. The cultivation of this crop led to the development of more and more new settlements on the Virginia mainland and ensured the success of British settlement in the area.