Islamophobia Politics Gender and Discrimination

Ali, Y. (2012). Shariah and citizenship. California Law Review 100:1027

Ali (2012) focuses on the pernicious trend towards institutionalized Islamophobia and racism in America. Starting with the 2010 "Save Our State" amendment in Oklahoma, several states have adopted similar approaches that essentially legislate discrimination. According to the author, such legislation is not only based on mistruth and has no basis in fact or evidence; the legislation is overtly unconstitutional and deprives Muslim Americans of their legal rights and protections. Anti-Muslim legislation creates a "second class citizenship" class for Muslims. Moreover, Ali (2012) clarifies the nature and definition of Sharia law and shows that Sharia law has been grossly distorted by the media. What is frequently called "Sharia" is actually a set of personal religious obligations and practices, not the inhumane punishments sensationalized by the media. The author also provides policy recommendations.

This article is instrumental in a cogent discussion about the distortions made by the media regarding Islam, and Sharia law in particular. The article addresses issues related to institutionalized Islamophobia and the legal implications thereof, and is therefore a critical source in my research.

Anti-Defamation League: http://www.adl.org/

The Anti-Defamation League started as an organization devoted to rooting out anti-Semitism and has done a brilliant job with its public relations campaigns, public awareness campaigns, and influences in public policy related to hate crimes and discrimination. The same organization has since broached a wider subject area, targets a broader swath of hate crimes, and can therefore be a valuable source of information on how to inhibit the spread of Islamophobia in concerted ways.

Byers, B.D. & Jones, J.A. (2007). The impact of the terrorist attacks of 9/11 on hate crime. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 5(1).

Using sociological methods, Byers & Jones (2007) analyze the FBI's UCR data to show that instances of hate crime directed at Muslims increased in the eight weeks following September 11 and rates remained relatively high thereafter too. The research showed that hate crimes against Muslims were conspicuously absent in the two cities directly hit by the terrorist attacks of September 11: New York and Washington, D.C. Rather than hypothesize that the lack of hate crimes in those cities was due to their being multicultural hubs, the authors suggest that in-group/out-group patterns of socialization are at play. Specifically, a crisis has a tendency to create a sense of community against a mutual enemy or in favor of shared goals.

This research is instrumental in showing how Islamophobia works and how it can potentially be minimized in America. When Muslims are viewed as neighbors and citizens instead of nebulous enemies, the communities can rally together against terrorism and other perils instead of creating artificial boundaries and fragmentation. In fact, creating community can help improve national resilience against terrorism and domestic crime as well.

Carland, S. (2011). Islamophobia, fear of loss of freedom, and the Muslim woman. Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 22(4): 469-473.

Focusing on fear of loss of freedom as a variable, the researcher shows how Islamophobia impacts Muslim women in particular. Fear of loss freedom is presented as a possible cause for Islamophobia, and is based on outmoded beliefs about the nature of Islam and its cultural elements including head covering. Bans on head covering have spread throughout Western Europe and have become entrenched in law precisely for the reasons the researchers suggest: the head covering hearkens to deep-rooted fears about loss of freedom. Signs of Muslim identity have become skewed to mean affronts to "Western" values like freedom.

As a large portion of the research will focus on the specific effects of Islamophobia on women and on gendered hate crime, this article is critical in elucidating some of the causes and effects of anti-Muslim sentiments in America. The article's focus also offers a novel approach to addressing issues related to how Muslim women and their dress is perceived by Americans.

Center for Security Policy

The Center for Security Policy encapsulates the prevailing beliefs of Americans, as its policies reflect values, norms, and biases lurking in the American consciousness. As a security policy organization, the Center for Security Policy does reflect the ways Islamophobia may become entrenched in law, and what policies can replace those that are ill-informed.

The Investigative Project on Terrorism: http://www.investigativeproject.org/

The Investigative Project on Terrorism links to news sources from around the world, focusing on articles portraying Islam as a violent movement. This website, like Jihad Watch, can be used as documentary evidence as to the unbalanced nature of reporting and fear-mongering in the United States. It is an invaluable source of evidence related to the way Islamophobia is being propagated in America.

Jihad Watch: http://www.jihadwatch.org/

Jihad Watch is a website that epitomizes the extent to which Islamophobia has become normalized in the United States. The website reflects fear-mongering and is overtly anti-Muslim, providing a rich source of documentary evidence for a research paper on Islamophobia in America.

Livengood, J.S. & Stodolska, M. (2004). The effects of discrimination and constraints negotiation on leisure behavior of American Muslims in Post-September 11 America. Journal of Leisure Research 36(2): 183-208.

Livengood & Stodolska (2004) conduct an in-depth qualitative analysis of the effects of Islamophobia in America after September 11. Twenty-five interviews were conducted with Muslim immigrants in America from different parts of the world. Results of the interviews show that for all participants, Islamophobia had constrained their leisure activities to the point where those activities became limited, and freedom of movement was significantly or severely curtailed. Other types of discrimination experienced included verbal abuse, social isolation, and dirty looks. Negotiation or mitigation strategies used by the participants included changing their activates, only going out in groups, and even limiting or restricting travel patterns. An attempt to "blend in" or "pass" was also reported, indicating sacrifice of personal and cultural expression.

One of the strengths of the Livengood & Stodolska (2004) research is its diversity in subjects, as they hail from a number of different national, ethnic, and linguistic backgrounds. Another strength is that the research is based on direct reports and not solely on the types of quantitative data that can often be misleading and inapplicable to effective policy.

Middle East Forum: http://www.meforum.org/

This website addresses a wide and inexhaustive range of topics related to the Middle East, with particular emphases on American policy in the Middle East. The website includes archived materials and more recent articles including those that are opinionated, revealing prevailing and diverse attitudes towards and from the Middle East.

Perry, B. (2014). Gendered Islamophobia. Social Identities 20(1): 74-89.

This journal article focuses on the effects of Islamophobia specifically on female populations. The authors found that while women are not typically victims of hate crime in general, they are more frequently the victims of Islamophobia-related abuse such as dirty looks and verbal abuse. The author postulates that the reason for the increased rates of abuse targeting women is their increased visibility and thus, vulnerability. Muslim women frequently wear distinctive clothing or head coverings that "mark" them in public spaces.

This research offers a powerful and poignant insight into how Islamophobia affects the lives of individuals on a daily basis. It is important to examine the effects of Islamophobia on women, and to engage in dialogue about the problems of Islamophobia in America by pointing out the ways gender and racism are linked. The report highlights lesser-known facts about Islamophobia including the gendered nature of hate crime and the effects of police sexual harassment on public health and safety.