Domestic violence: history, types, and multiagency response strategies

Domestic violence is a complex problem requiring a multiagency response. This response should include a range of advocacy, support, engagement with the criminal and civil justice systems and with other voluntary and statutory sector agencies.

Domestic violence and emotional abuse are behaviors utilized by one person in a relationship to control the other person. Partners may be married or not, heterosexual, gay or lesbian, separated or dating.

Abuse encompasses such behaviors as name calling and putdowns, keeping a partner from contacting their family or friends, withholding money, stopping a partner from getting or keeping a job, actual or threatened physical harm, sexual assault, stalking, and intimidation.

Violence can be criminal and includes physical assault, sexual abuse, and stalking. Though emotional, psychological and financial abuses are not criminal behaviors, they can lead to criminal violence.

Domestic Violence has a long history. In early Roman society a woman was considered the property of her husband and was subject to his control. Early Roman law provided that a husband could beat, divorce, or kill his wife for offenses which brought dishonor to his reputation or compromised his property rights. These matters were considered private and were not publicly scrutinized (Swisher & Wekesser, 1994).

The Catholic Church's endorsement of The Rules of Marriage in the fifteenth century allowed the husband to stand as judge of his wife. He was to beat her with a stick upon her commission of an offense; this showed a concern for his wife's soul. The common law in England gave a man the right to beat his wife in the interest of maintaining family discipline. The phrase "rule of thumb" alluded to the English common law that allowed a husband to beat his wife as long as he used a stick no bigger than his thumb (Swisher & Wekesser, 1994). Women were not the only ones subject to abuse. In eighteenth century France if it became public that a man had been beaten by his wife he was forced to wear an outlandish costume and ride backwards around the village on a donkey (Gross, 2005).

In early America the Puritan's openly banned family violence; however the laws lacked strict enforcement. It was not until the 1870s that first states banned a man's right to beat his family. These laws were moderately enforced until the feminist movement of the 1960s started bringing the problems of domestic violence to the media. By the 1980s most states had adopted legislation addressing domestic violence (Swisher & Wekesser, 1994).

Discussion

Types of Domestic Violence

Domestic Violence comes in many forms, the variations in frequency; severity, purpose, and outcome are all significant. Michael Johnson and Kathleen Ferraro (2000) contend there are five types of domestically violent relationships.

Common Couple Violence is a type of behavior that is characterized by the violence occurring within the context of a single issue. Furthermore, there are one or at the most two incidents of violence, and it is not a pattern of behavior to control the partner. The batterer is not someone who is violent outside the home and is the least likely to be sexually and emotionally abusive. 56% of these types of batterers are male, while 44% are female.

The second type, Intimate Terrorism, is a tactic of behavior aimed at control and manipulation. It is important to note that though violence may have only occurred once or twice and may be of low severity, it still involves emotional abuse. Men who demonstrate this pattern of behavior are more likely to kill their partners. This kind is more likely to use violence as a way of control. They may appear extremely distressed during violent episodes, this is an act to intimidate and control others. These batterers are more likely to engage in planned and violent revenge if the relationship ends and can be dangerous to their victims.

Violent Resistance is the third type. This occurs when one partner becomes controlling or frightening and the other partner responds with violence in self-defense. This kind of violence is a response to a perceived threat, may be a onetime event, and is not a pattern of control and manipulation.

Mutual Violent Control may be thought of as mutual combat. It may be two parties using violence to control each other in a specific setting, or be two people attempting intimate terrorism with each other. Research shows that in 31% of these couples the male initiated more violent episodes as opposed to 8% of the females initiating such. Furthermore, numerous studies show that in relationships where the violence is initiated equally women are more likely to suffer serious harm.

The fifth type is Dysphoric-Boarderline Violence. This type of batterer is a needy, dependent, and emotionally overwhelmed person who resorts to violence in frustration. This kind of abuser is more likely to show obvious emotional problems and distress, such as depression, fears of abandonment and great emotional dependence on the victim.

Intervention Strategies and Approaches

According to Hester and Westmarland (2005) studies indicate that a narrowly focused, single intervention approach is unlikely to work in tackling domestic violence. The programs that are most successful in reducing repeat victimization combined intensive, pro-active, tailored and holistic advocacy and support with engagement with the criminal and civil justice processes. In addition, routine enquiry and primary prevention are also necessary for a comprehensive approach to tackling domestic violence. Victims need access to a range of advocacy, support and other interventions that relate to their specific and current situation. Routine enquiry may enable individuals who have not already recognized that they are experiencing domestic violence to see that this is the case and thus to access support. Outreach may enable victims in rural or other isolated communities to access help. Victims actively seeking help need support in accessing criminal and civil justice responses, housing and other resources. Group work may be useful in helping victims 'move on' after they have left violent partners.

A first step for all victims in accepting help of any kind is to acknowledge and name what they were experiencing as domestic abuse. Hester and Westmarland (2005) report victims talked in interviews about how important other survivors of domestic violence had been to them in this continuing process of achieving recognition. Interviewees stated it was difficult to find the space to think things through and to realize that emotional abuse, intimidation and harassment are as much a part of abuse as violence. Victims had to learn to stop blaming themselves, and to admit to friends and family what had been happening.

Studies also indicate that where, civil and criminal justice processes are slow-moving or ineffective in helping women and children to be safe, they can become barriers to a victim's ability to get their lives back on an even keel and to recover emotionally. Problems in taking action against perpetrators and in resolving child contact issues were found to create real barriers for victims and children in being able to 'move on' in their lives. Setbacks frequently occurred, both for the victim and their children, when there were repeat incidents of abuse or threats from the perpetrator or when the perpetrator retained unsafe access to the family (Hester & Westmarland, 2005).

In order to effectively intervene in a domestic violence situation a number of steps need to be taken. First victims need to be able to discuss and disclose the abuse. Victims also need to be supported in reporting incidences of violence to the police. Increased numbers of victims reported domestic violence to the police when they were supported to engage the criminal justice system. Legal support, including workers with foreign language skills increased engagement with the criminal justice system. Victims need support though the courts as well. Victims report it particularly useful when they were accompanied to court by an advocate. Victims also report feeling betrayed when sentences appeared overly lenient, particularly where fines were the only sentence imposed.

The most effective approach in the reduction of repeat victimization is the tailoring of advocacy and support to the specific needs of the victim. Repeat victimization decreased when victims felt more empowered to report to the police and were able to identify what was happening as criminal. Overall, these measures reduced repeat victimization and also increased the victim's confidence and sense of safety.

Finally, victims need support through individual and group counseling. Individual work and group work both helped victims become more self-aware and recognize their experiences as abuse. Group work is also useful to help victims 'move on' with their lives. Therapy is particularly effective when it was structured, tailored to the needs of the individual, has an agreed plan of action, and incorporates support for children.

Predictors of Domestic Violence

These signs often occur before actual domestic abuse and may serve as clues to potential abuse. 1) Did your partner grow up in a violent family? People who grow up in families where they have been abused as children or where one parent beats the other have grown up learning that violence is normal behavior. 2) Does he or she tend to use force or violence to "solve" problems? A young person who has a criminal record for violence, who gets into fights, or who likes to act tough is likely to act the same way with partner and children. Is there evidence of a quick temper? 3) Does your partner over-react to little problems and frustration? Exhibit cruelty to animals? Punch walls or throw things when upset? Any of these behaviors may be a sign of a person who will work out bad feelings with violence. 4) Does he or she abuse alcohol or other drugs? There is a strong link between violence and problems with drugs and alcohol. Be alert to possible drinking/drug problems, particularly if refusing to admit a problem, or refusing to get help. Do not think that you can change your partner. 5) Does your partner have strong traditional ideas about what a man should be and what a woman should be? Does he think a woman should stay at home, take care of her husband, and follow his wishes and orders? Does she think that a husband should bear the heaviest load and grant her desires simply because she is a woman? 6) Is your partner jealous of your other relationships -- not just opposite-sex friends that you may know -- but also with your same-sex friends and your family? Does your partner keep tabs on you, wanting to know where you are at all times or wanting to be with you all of the time? 7) Does he or she have access to guns, knives, or other lethal instruments, talking of using them against people, or threatening to use them to get even? 8) Does your partner expect you to follow orders or advice and become angry if you do not fulfill his or her wishes or if you cannot anticipate wants? 9) Does your partner go through extreme highs and lows, almost as though two different people, extremely kind one time and extremely cruel at another time? 10) When your partner gets angry, are you fearful? Do you find that avoiding anger has become a major part of your life? Do you do what your partner wants you to do, rather than what you want to do? 11) Does he or she treat you roughly, physically forcing you to do what you do not want to do? ("Predictors of Domestic Violence," 2012).

Conclusion

Domestic violence has many aspects including physical, psychological and financial consequences. The physical ramifications include bruises, broken bones, head injuries, lacerations, and internal bleeding that may require medical attention and hospitalization. Chronic health problems may also develop including arthritis, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic pain, pelvic pain, ulcers, and migraines.

The psychological fallout includes stress, fear, and anxiety. Depression is also common as is a greater risk of suicide. The most common psychological effect of domestic violence is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PTSD is characterized by flashbacks, intrusive images, exaggerated startle response, nightmares, and avoidance of triggers that are associated with the abuse.

Financial consequences also come into play when dealing with a domestic violence situation. Often the victim is has very little money of their own and few people on whom they can rely when seeking help. This has been shown to be one of the greatest obstacles facing victims of domestic violence, and a significant factor in discouraging victims from leaving their perpetrators.

Domestic violence comes in many forms and varieties. The most successful interventions utilize a variety of techniques and agencies in order to bring a comprehensive support strategy to its victims.