Intercultural communication: theory and practice

Intercultural Communication

One of the first barriers that Christian experiences in his encounters with a different culture is language. While his initial encounter with the people is positive and even euphoric, this early reaction leads to areas of discord and lack of understanding. Language usage and the ability to understand the nuances of a foreign language play a vital role in many of the barriers that occur in this case study. It is also significant that in the final paragraph of the study Christian notes that his improved relationship with the culture is concomitant with his improved language skills.

This initial barrier can be related to other cultural barriers that were experienced. One of the most significant is stereotypical cultural assessments. Social Identity Theory is useful in this regard as it refers to the importance of understanding the comparative cultural aspect. As this theory points out, generalized comparisons between cultures often lead to false stereotypical responses that act as a barrier to positive interaction and communication.

This theory developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner is intended to explain the basis of intergroup discrimination. Part of this theory is that initial contact between different groups leads to labelling or categorization. This can be seen in the way that Christian tends to see the people he meets as a group with idealized homogenous characteristics; for example, when he criticizes the way that they relate to food, such as their obsession with the papaya fruit.

Cultural comparison in terms of social contact is also seen as a barrier in this study. This can be seen in terms of cultural views of transportation. Christian compares the rather eccentric colectivo transport arrangement to his own culture and cannot at first understand the cultural dimensions and subtleties of the system and therefore tends to condemn it as inadequate in comparison to his own. This can also be seen in his view of the telephone system. This comparative assessment of the other culture becomes a barrier or obstruction to this acceptance of the society and their acceptance of him.

On the other hand certain values and prejudices are also evident on the part of the Peruvian culture. This is obvious in the way that Gomez treats Christian after he has become ill. Gomez is also unable to understand the cultural context and framework that is relevant for Christian and this creates a barrier for communication and interaction. This can also be related to Value Orientation Theory and the aspect of relative time; as well as barriers created by different views of hierarchical social structures.

Question 2

The reaction of Gomez to Christian when he becomes ill is a good example of mixed cultural signals and responses. Gomez is not angry with Christian as an individual but rather he is angry because in terms of his social context he is seen to be responsible for the foreigner and Christian's illness implies that he has failed in this responsibility and has been socially embarrassed. The fact that Christian was his first foreign visitor implies a form of status for the institution and places a social responsibility on the shoulders of Gomez to ensure Christian's well-being.

This response to the illness is indicative of a very different cultural matrix and context that Christian does not at first understand. This cultural context can be related to the fact that the Peruvian culture is different to American culture and places a higher social value on collectivism as opposed to individualism. This also relates to the issue of 'saving face' in a high context culture. A high context culture refers to societies where the group is valued and seen to have a higher importance than the individual. Consequently, Gomez is aware that he will lose face or respect in the community if he is perceived as being unable to care for the foreign visitor. This can also be related to Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Culture and also refers to the concept of power distance. Power distance describes the perception of power distribution in a culture and it is aspect that is not clearly grasped by Christian when he tries to understand Gomez's response.

3. Question three

A very useful theory that helps to expand our understanding of the cultural complexity in this case study is Allport's Contact Hypothesis. This theory suggests ways and means of improving cultural relations between people and groups through awareness of certain central issues. The theory suggests that contact and cultural interaction can be improved if cognizance is taken of the following aspects. These include, Equal Status, Cooperative Activity, Personal Interaction, and Social Norms. In other words, when aspects such as personal interaction are improved and cultural norms better understood, there is a good possibility of positive communication and interaction and the removal of barriers such as labeling and stereotyping that can result in prejudice.

In the above case study the issue of interaction in the learning and understanding of the norms of the other cultures plays an important part in the positive outcomes of Christian's experience. The final paragraph of the study clearly indicates that Christian has become more integrated into the culture after a period of six months. The quality of his experience changes from one of frustration and confusion to being described as "extremely satisfying." In terms of the contact hypothesis this result in due to fact that over time Christian has improved on many of the aspects related to the creation of positive intercultural relationships. Not only has his grasp of the language improved but this has led to more interpersonal contact and a better understanding of the norms and values that underlie the culture. He states, for example, that he can now understand the humour of the culture better and even distinguish different accents in the language. With a deeper understanding of culture and language and a greater appreciation of cultural values, his experience becomes one that is positive.

Case study two

Question 1

One of the major cultural barriers that Sally experiences is a distance between her cultural views and standards and the values of the cultural context in which she finds herself. This is clearly evident in her failure to understand the hierarchical structure and the emphasis on status in the society. We see this clearly in her response to the chastisement of the housemaid by the mother. This refers to the fact that the housemaid does not address Sally formally and can be explained by a number of theories. Value Orientation Theory provides a good basis for a discussion of this incident in that it provides a framework that includes an analysis of cultural relations and the way that people relate to one another in terms of different perceptions of hierarchy and equality.

From another perspective we could also argue that barriers are also created by the culture that Sally presently lives in. This refers to the view that the culture is not sensitive or does not understand her values and views. On the one hand a barrier that Sally experiences is language and interpretation. The fact that she is referred to as 'gordita' implies that she is fat and this is a cultural insult in her society. However, as will be discussed, the use of this word also has positive connotations and this aspect is not understood by Sally. At the same time the people who refer to her by this name are also not being sensitive to her cultural norms.

Another issue that acts as barrier to intercultural communication is cultural stereotypes. This is evident in the way that Sally assesses the educational process and system. Her assessment that her education system is much "better" than the system in the culture she is visiting is an indication that she is not aware of the standards, values and different processes in that culture. Sally also assumes a rather prejudicial and ethnocentric attitude of the way the lecturer behaves in the class. This could also be related to Value Orientation Theory in that she is not fully cognizant of the different worldviews of the culture.

A lack of awareness of nonverbal communication and other communications patterns in the society are also evident from the incident when she is accosted by a man in the street. There is also a sense that this is a form of cultural stereotyping of women and as such could be related to Contact Theory and the need to understand different cultural norms.

Question 2

Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Culture provides some clues to this question. This refers to high vs. low power distance. In different cultures there is a different view of power relationships and in some cultures the power structure is more unequal than in others. For instance, in a low power distance culture power relations are more democratic and there is a cultural desire for equality among people. In a high power distance culture on the other hand there is a more strict hierarchical structure and a greater distance between people, which is accepted by the society and culture.

The important aspect to consider is the way that people perceive and accept these differing power distributions. The barrier and problem that Sally experiences in this particular case is that she comes from a society that favors a low power distance model of behavior as the accepted norm; whereas in the society in which she is now staying the cultural norms and accepted context is one of high power distance.

In theoretical terms this means that Sally wishes to reduce the distance between herself and the housemaid on the cultural and normative grounds that all people are equal regardless of their social position. However, this view runs counter to the norms adopted in the high power culture, which reflects the view that the maidservant should know her place in the societal and cultural structure and that it is not correct or acceptable for the maid to address Sally informally.

This can also be related to the concept of in-group and out-group. In this instance one can refer to cultural class distinctions and the view that certain members of society should not mix with others. While this is a view that would contradict Sally's sense of human equality, yet it is also a view that she should be aware of in order to understand and interact with the culture more effectively.

Question 3

The Sapir -- Whorf hypothesis is a theory that posits a relationship between language, the subtle grammatical nuances of the language and the worldview of the person speaking that language. In other words, language is not seen only a means of communication but as a repository of cultural norms and values that affect the way an individual perceives and acts in society. Language is therefore is associated with certain patterns of thinking about reality and it follows that if one does not understand the language then one will not understand these often different views of society and reality.

This in turn can lead to severe cultural barriers and misinterpretations of actions. This aspect is clearly seen in the fact that Sally is offended by the use of the word 'gordita'. However, the context of her environment and the fact that she states that people around her are very kind, would tend to suggest a different and non-offensive interpretation of the word from the point-of-view of the native language being spoken.

According to the Sapir -- Whorf hypothesis language is not only denotative but is also connotative and therefore what we in fact encounter in this situation is that Sally is not aware of the more subtle connotative meanings of the word 'gordita'; which is probably intended as a term of affection or endearment by the people she is staying with. This is supported by the fact that while the word gordita refers ostensibly to a food and means "little fat one" in Spanish, it also descibes an attractive woman or girl who is curvaceously built. (Definition of gordita)

Question 4

Sally was frustrated by her classes because they seemed very different to the educational system in the culture. She complains that the classes were seemingly disorganized academically and somewhat chaotically structured, particularly in terms of time. An important observation that she makes is that there seems to be no allowance made for student participation.

These observations raise a number of theoretical issues. In the first instance, she is measuring a different culture in terms of the values and patterns of thinking in her own culture. In this regard we could turn to Social identity Theory from Henri Tajfel and John Turner for analysis. In this theory the view is put forward that inter-group or intercultural conflict and barriers to positive relationships are often caused by generalized and false comparisons that do not take into account the different cultural and social context.

Another theoretical view that helps us to understand this situation is Value Orientation Theory and the view that cultures function according to different world views and value orientations with regard to shared factors such as time. While Sally finds it disconcertning that her lecurer does not arrive to class on time, this is a cultural trait which supports a less strict concept of time.

This could also be related to a third important facet; namely power distance and power structures. Sally notes that the lectuer does not allow for student participation. This confuses her as she comes from a culture where this form of interaction is encouraged. However, in the context of the culture in which she lives there is a more hierarchical power structure and the lecturer asserts this by arriving late and by showing that he or she is in charge of the class in not allowing participation.

Question 5

What may appear to be a form of abuse in one culture may be a compliment in another. This is also an aspect that can be related to Value Orientation theory; as well as to non-verbal expression in different cultures.

Sally reacts negatively to the man's comments and suggestions and interprets them as a sexist statement that is intrusive and objectionable. She reacts in this fashion because in her cultural and social framework the individual female has a right to object to any infringements on her privacy. Furthermore, these remarks are taken as an insult in terms of Sally's perspective or worldview. This may not be the case in other cultures and what is seen as a sexist infringement of privacy by Sally may be seen in another culture as an acceptable form of social interaction between male and female.

Question 6

Contact theory stresses cooperative activity as an important factor in cultural understanding and in the process of cultural interaction. In this case study it is clear that Sally has not yet assimilated many of the norms and values of the culture in which she is staying. Some of the basic cultural norms, such as the hierarchical structure of the culture as well as the power relations are obviously not understood well enough by Sally.

However, the tone of the letter is extremely positive and Sally refers more then once to her optimism that the challenges that she faces will be overcomes. A theory which would be applicable in her case is Value Orientation. It is clear from this case study that Sally needs to become aware of the worldview and value orientations in this culture in order to understand and interact more positively.

Case study three

Question one

The central aspect that relates to the issue of the women and the bank loan is the fact that in this particular society there is a strong normative drive towards collectivism as opposed to individualism. This is a cardinal theoretical aspect that helps us to understand Jenny's reaction to Aisha's story. Jenny comes from a culture where individuality and individual action is placed above collective action and meaning in the cultural norms of the society. In her interpretation of the story Jenny therefore places the onus on the individual responsibility that Aisha should bear because she could not pay the part of the loan that she owed. In terms of Jenny's perception, the focus on individual responsibly would mean that the repayment of the loan was essential in the light of the fact that the group could lose their borrowing status. Jenny therefore states that from her perspective the women in the group should have been very angry at Aisha for not being able to pay back her portion of the loan. She is therefore surprised that the women invite Aisha back into the group.

Jenny's reaction is based on her cultural assumptions and she does not understand the collective and egalitarian nature of the norms that control the society. This can also be related to the theory of Value Orientation and Social Identity theory. Different cultures have different ideas about scoria relations, which is a point that is stressed in the theory of Value Orientation. While one society might prize individuality, another might place the emphasis on collectivity and egalitarianism. It is therefore important in interacting with another culture to understand the type of social relations that are preferred in that culture.