Islamization of Knowledge This Work

Islamization of Knowledge

This work seeks to examine the question of 'what is curriculum' in terms of the historical background and curriculum process and to identify effective strategies for transforming curriculum and affecting change. This work seeks to answer the questions of: (1) Does Islam encourage its followers to believe only in metaphysics and reject the empirical sciences? If not, what is supposed to be done to help reform the education system in the Muslim world?; and (2) What elements should be integrated into a secular-based curriculum in order to Islamize knowledge?

In order to understand the framework upon which Islamic curriculum rests and the reason that there is a push for reform in the curriculum of Islamic educational institutions examined must be the source of educational content for the education of the Muslim individual. The curriculum in Islamic schools is derived from two primary sources which are the core curriculum programs that are standard in public schools and from the Islamic religion itself. An apparent contradiction exists between empirical science and Islamic beliefs that are derived from religious or spiritual beliefs of the Muslim society. These beliefs are in direct contradiction to what is referred to as the naturalist paradigm in science or that which can be seen, touched and empirically proven the 'truth'.

I. WHAT IS CURRICULUM METAPHYSICS vs. EMPIRICAL SCIENCE

The first work examined in this study is the work of Smedley (2008) entitled: "Islamic Thought and Modern Science: Conceptualizing the Debate" states the fact that "the coexistence of science and religious thought...in Islam...has a vigorous and sustained tradition" has had a strong influence on the science of Christian medieval and Renaissance Europe." (2008) in fact, it is held that Copernicus "knew of and drew upon the work of the Islamic scientific tradition." (Smedley, 2008) the argument stated by Smedley is that "modern science...is not only incompatible with Islamic, but in most of its expressions, is antithetical to it." (2008) Modern science has a seemingly built in notion that scientific naturalism which holds that theism is a falsehood "and the spatio-temporal universe of entities as studied by the physical sciences is all there is." (Smedley, 2008)

Smedley states: "More robustly, scientific naturalism includes:

1) a naturalist epistemic attitude on the nature and limits of knowledge, including the rejection of a 'first-philosophy';

2) an etiological account of how all entities have come to be in terms of a grand causal story described in natural scientific terms; and 3) a general ontology in which the only entities allowed are those that bear a relevant similarity to those which characterize a completed form of physics." (2008)

Daniel Jou, in the work entitled: "Islam and Philosophy of Science: Empiricism vs. Antirealism" states that historically and most specifically in modern times "there has been a vast and complex discourse on the relationship between empirical observation and revelation." (2008) This discussion, according to Jou "has developed urgency due to the pressures on Islam and Muslims to adapt and conform to so-called modern 'realities'. The prevailing intellectual paradigm within which Muslims have found themselves is predominantly materialistic, naturalist" in nature and one where the determination of truth and reality is through "empirical investigation and inductive analysis." This - "is the scientific method." (Jou, 2008) the ethos of the Qur'an and Islam are not 'at their face in consonance with this intellectual paradigm." (Jou, 2008) This is held to be due to the fact that both the "unseen" and therefore determinedly the 'unempirical" are both "very much determinants and constituents of truth in the Islamic worldview." (Jou, 2008)

Within this framework characterized by assimilation of a hermeneutic nature revelations of "formally or practically unseen entities, such as jinn, angels, the Night Journey and Ascension, the creation of Adam and prophetic miracles are, to varying degree, considered metaphors as opposed to plain descriptions of reality." (Jou, 2008) While this is precisely true in the Christian and other religions of the world, what stands out in Islamic education is that there has been no effective separation of the religion and state in the educational aspect in Muslim schools as there has been in member states of the European Union and in United States schools and school curriculum. The argument stated by Jou is that "taking what are considered scientific truths at any point in history as a standard by which to evaluate and interpret revelation is a problematic approach for several methodological reasons." (Jou, 2008) Specifically, Jou examines antirealism within the framework of the philosophy of science that holds there is no connection to reality by theoretical entities. Motivating antirealism is several philosophical and historical concerns, the most salient being the many paradigm-shift that occur within the development of science thought." (Jou, 2008)

The work of Mashhad Al-Alaf entitled: "The Unity of Truth in Islam: A Philosophical Sketch to the Islamic Theory of Science" states that while modern discourse does not reflect it, in fact "Islam offers a holistic conception of trust that stands as the very foundation of what" is termed by Al-Alaf as "the Islamic Theory of Science." (2008) Stated as the foundational principle in this theory is "the Unity of Truth" stated to be a principle that "presupposes a logical axiomatic premise: it is impossible for the truths from different fields of knowledge to be contradictory." (2008) This is only possible states Al-Alf in a "dynamic holistic Qur'anic universe, in which all parts are well designed to serve specific goals." (2008) in the event that a contradiction of an apparent nature occurs, it then becomes the "task of scientists and scholars of these fields to unveil the hidden secrets of such an apparent contradiction." (Al-Alaf, 2008)

Al-Alaf states that truth seeking is "aimed at reaching certainty" in which the data that has been collected and the resulting truths require careful examination. Al-Alaf states that this has been achieved by Muslim scientists through application of a method which is referred to as the "scientific doubt" which Al-Alaf described by stating: "For example, for two scientific hypotheses; either both are false or one of them is false while the other is true, or both of them are true, the question that arises here is how could they both be true at the same time?" (2008) Doubt, according to Al-Alaf has been used by Muslim philosophers as "a methodological apparatus as a precaution of searching for the truth and reaching certainty. This methodological doubt was applied by relying upon certain, clear, and self-evident ideas; starting from sense-data, moving to reason, then to revelation." (2008) Within the framework of Islamic thought, the truth that is derived from science and "acquired by experience and logical reasoning, 'aql', can be successfully incorporated with the knowledge that that comes from religion and revelation (naql). Thus reason and revelation do not contradict each other." (Al-Alaf, 2008)

II. REFORM of the EDUCATION SYSTEM in MUSLIM WORLD

The work of Barazangi (1992) entitled: "Religious Education" published in the 'Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World' states the fact that "internal political and social movements of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries neglected Islamic education within the Muslim world and allowed external secular and missionary ideals to turn it into 'religious' education." Barazangi states as well that there are various perspectives within the "historical accounts of Islamic/Muslim education...on its nature and the function of its traditional institutions." (1992) it is related that the restrains which "ended Islamic education as a functional system aimed at understanding and appropriating Quar'anic pedagogical principles and limited it to 'religious' knowledge confined to selected males" were restraints of a cultural and political nature. The reason for the differentiation in curriculum and instruction between both class and gender is stated to be "...the primacy of formalized and juridical education over the informal development of Islamic character..." (Barazangi, 1992) Barazangi terms this to have resulted in "a separation of Islamic and 'non-Islamic' knowledge, and a dichotomy between ideal and practice in Muslim education." (1992) Barazangi writes that Islamic Education is "the process of shaping character within the Islamic worldview..." (1992)

The work of Douglass and Shaikh entitled: "Defining Islamic Education: Differentiation and Applications" states that the "generic term, Islamic education, can mean many things. Therefore, it is necessary to differentiate among the diverse institutions that engage in education related to Islam, particularly in the United States." (2004) Islamic education "in its most literal sense...can refer to efforts by the Muslim community to educate its own, to pass along the heritage of Islamic knowledge, first and foremost through its primary sources, the Qur'an and the Sunnah." (Douglass and Shaikh, 2004) Douglass and Shaikh relate in order to make an evaluation of what education means to Muslims "it is necessary to understand the curriculum in such schools." (2004) Insofar as the core academic subjects the precise same textbooks are utilized in Muslim classrooms as are used in public schools however, added to the standard programs are instruction in Qur'anic recitation and memorization, basic Islamic beliefs and practices and Arabic language. There is no standardization in the textbooks or curriculum used in these subjects. Not only is a challenge present for Muslim teachers in attempting to standardize this curriculum but as well "this is compounded by the fact that curriculum materials related to teaching about Islam produced overseas - even for Arabic language studies - are viewed as irrelevant or unsuited to young students' lives and culture in the U.S. And Europe." (Douglass and Shaikh, 2004)

Guidelines have been provided in recent years concerning teaching religion in public schools in the U.S. And it is stated by Douglass and Shaikh that "general adherence to the guidelines and their implementation in textbook development has done more than anything else to improve the accuracy of textbook depictions of the basic beliefs and practices, origin stories and subsequent cultural and institutional history of various religions." (Douglass and Shaikh, 2004) Stated as primary among the changes is "the consistent use of attributive phrases, combined with greater factual accuracy." (Douglass and Shaikh, 2004) Douglass and Shaikh further note that teaching about Islam which is "inauthentic or inaccurate...is not, in fact, education about Islam at all." (2004) Islamic education is confused due to media explanation and commentary and assumptions made that Islamic education "...might be shorthand for teaching hatred of the 'West' or the United States" however, it is important according to Douglass and Shaikh to understand that the concept of Islamic education "cannot be reduced to such stereotypes, nor is it limited to rigid transmittal of 1400-year-old lifeways from ancient Arabia." (2004)

In fact, education is stated by Douglass and Shaikh to be "the first duty of a Muslim, male or female..." As knowledge of God " is equated with the process of learning and teaching." (Douglass and Shaikh, 2004) the truth is that much in the way of scientific knowledge was derived from the knowledge of Arabs in the areas of "seafaring, navigation and astronomy, trade, animal husbandry and agriculture." (Douglass and Shaikh, 2004) Douglass and Shaikh relate that the funding for the development of Islamic law came from Caliphal patronage which provided the necessary motivation "for scholars to set high standards for time-keeping and calendars, accurate orientation of the direction of worship toward the Ka'bah and calculation of inheritance, weights and measures."(2004) in addition, the technology for making paper arrived from China was "timely...[and] provided [the] additional impetus to this dynamism." (Douglass and Shaikh, 2004) Douglass and Shaikh conclude by stating that it is evident after much study that "both the obligation to be educated, and the moral, intellectual and cultural concepts of education in the Muslim tradition are not far removed from similar goals and concepts associated with Western traditions and aspects of education." (2004)

The work of Andrew Coulson (2004) entitled: "Education and the Indoctrination in the Muslim World: Is there a Problem? What Can We Do About it?" relates that in many countries including Pakistan and Indonesia, "militant Islamist schools are inculcating scores of thousands of students with in an ideology of intolerance, violence and hate. In the past, the United States abetted such schools as part of its strategy to containing Soviet expansionism. After a gradual about-face in the years leading up to September 11, 2001, the American government is now funding and cajoling the governments of several majority-Muslim nations to rein in their more militant schools." (Coulson, 2004)

The Muslim Education Foundation (MEF) is a not-for-profit organization which states that it is "committed to nurturing a model par excellence for every Muslim..." (2008) Transformative learning is held to be a "process that leads to self-transformation" and is "unlike theoretical learning that imparts information, even knowledge in a mundane sense, without actually affecting the inner core of the learner..." (Muslim Education Foundation, 2008) Transformative learning is stated to be a process that "transforms each and every learner in the very process of learning; this transformation takes place through 'ma'rifah, gnosis, gained during the process - an understanding that the learner is a created human being, possessing a specific innate nature, fitrah, and capable of living a life fully conscious of the purpose for which he or she has been created in harmony with his of her fitrah." (Muslim Education Foundation, 2008) Transformative learning is also held to be "...a lifelong process toward a definitive goal: success as defined by the Quran." (Muslim Education Foundation, 2008) the Muslim Education Foundation states that four interrelated programs are currently at focus:

1) development of education resources;

2) human resource development;

3) Nasr Network of Schools and Educators; and 4) Education @ Home. (Muslim Education Foundation, 2008)

According to Quick in the work entitled: "Making Islamic Education Relevant for Today" a problem that many Muslim communities face in education is the student's "lack of interest in the material or curriculum." (Muslim Education Foundation, 2008) According to Quick "the reality is that many of our children are bored at weekend and full-time Islamic schools and this prevents them from properly absorbing and understanding the knowledge being conveyed." (2008) According to Quick, the school curriculum must be made more practical and relevant." (2008)

Jeremy Henzell-Thomas writes in the work entitled: "Excellence in Islamic Education: Key Issues for the Present Time" that that which is being witnessed in Britain's education system, as well as in other stated education systems throughout the Western world "is the progressive destruction of the concept and practice of a holistic system of education - that is, a broad and balanced system of education based on an understanding of the full potential of the human being and a system of pedagogy designed to awaken and develop that potential." (Henzell-Thomas, 2003) Henzell-Thomas writes that there has been a "process of attrition, constriction and ultimate strangulation..." which has been gradual and which is and includes."..standardized, bureaucratic system" which has effectively stifled student creation and served to demoralize both students and teachers.

What has been witnessed according to Henzell-Thomas is the "triumph of quantification, league tables, and the proliferation of an oppressive and soulless target-drive regime derived from alien corporate models and control-obsessed managerialism." (2003) According to Henzell-Thomas "the best Islamic education must encompass the two traditional categories of knowledge, and the hierarchical relationship between them:

1) revealed knowledge - attained through the religious science; and 2) acquired knowledge - attained through the rational, intellectual and philosophical sciences. (2003)

According to Henzell-Thomas in the "worldview of tawhid (Divine Unity) knowledge is holistic and there is no compartmentalization of knowledge into religious and secular spheres. Both types of knowledge contribute to the strengthening of faith, the former through a careful study of the revealed Word of God and the latter through a meticulous, systematic study of the world of man and nature." (2003)

Henzell-Thomas (2003) states that the curriculum which is "impoverished" and one that has an "associated regime of perpetual testing" results in it be less than "surprising...that growing numbers of young teachers are quitting the profession because they think schools are becoming results factories, where heads insist targets are met regardless of the human costs." (2003) Henzell-Thomas further relates that in a poll conducted by MORI the primary reasons cited by parents for their support of faith schools in the United Kingdom are:

desire for their children to be educated in the same values and beliefs as their families - 35%

Good Discipline - 28%

Religious ethos - 27%

Good exam results - 10% (2003)

Henzell-Thomas (2003) additionally states that a survey conducted by the Incorporated Association of Preparatory Schools in the United Kingdom (IAPS) stated that the foremost reasons for enrollment in faith schools cited by parents in the United Kingdom were:

small classes and a broad and balanced curriculum;

the survival of those humanities subjects under threat in the state system;

resources and facilities for sports;

wide choice of extra-curricular activities; and opportunities for cultural development including music and art. (2003)

Henzell-Thomas relates that "the perfection of the Islamic revelation embraces all the diverse aspects of the life of man and roots all of them in the Unity and Comprehensiveness of God." (2003) Henzell-Thomas relates the belief of Seyyed Hossein Nasr who states that Islamic education " is not concerned only with the instruction and training of the mind and the transmission of knowledge (ta'lim) but also with the education of the whole being of men and women (tarbiyah)." (2003) Henzell-Thomas relates that it is the claim of Al-Attas that "ta'dib is a superordinate concept encompassing not only 'instruction' (ta'lim) and the idea of 'nurturing', 'rearing', 'nourishing' or 'fostering' (tarbiyah)...but also 'knowledge'." (2003)

The semantic filed of tarbiyah is stated to be inclusive of:

1) minerals;

2) plants; and 3) animals. (Henzell-Thomas, 2003)

However, education as held within the Islamic understanding can be applicable to man only who is stated to be "...endowed with 'aql." (Henzell-Thomas, 2003)

The curriculum that is holistic in nature is one that "aims to reconcile conventional and stereotyped oppositions such as art and science; creativity and rigour; analytic and synthetic styles of learning; logic and intuition; memorization and comprehension; collaboration and competition; goal-directed learning and exploratory, discovery or investigative learning; innovation and tradition; teaching methods which facilitate learning and those which direct learning..." (Henzell-Thomas, 2003) Holistic education is also stated to be guided "by the need for balance, moderation, and harmony, and he existence of complementary pairs of opposites as the underlying fabric of everything created in the universe, it seeks to avoid a vested interest in any one-sided model, paradigm, position conceptual 'package' or ephemeral fashion in educational philosophy or methodology." (Henzell-Thomas, 2003)

Education is held to be "too important a field to be left to the adversarial politics of competing model-builders..." because all models have limitations and are conditioned by constructions of the human being. According to Henzell-Thomas, the Islamic education system "must be deeply rooted in a metaphysics derived from the comprehensiveness and unifying vision of the Qur'an." (2003) Henzell-Thomas holds that it is very important to make sure that religious studies are not "compartmentalized and cut off from knowledge in the humanities and in the natural and social sciences, which are necessary for it to be a meaningful guide in contemporary life." (2003) Further held to be important in the work of Henzell-Thomas is ensuring that a "false and misleading dichotomy is not set up between a type of education which prepares students for 'the life of this world' and that which prepares students for the 'Hereafter'." (2003) This, states Henzell-Thomas 'is a recipe for a deeply divided mentality and troubled soul." (2003) When the entire focus is on study of religion, resulting is "an unintegrated educational system which does not give man the knowledge and skills necessary for engaging in meaningful activities in this life..." (Henzell-Thomas, 2003)

The work of Sanjakdar entitled: "Educating Muslim Children: A Study of the Hidden and Core Curriculum of an Islamic School" relates that it is has been questioned by members of the Muslim community "the extent to which the religious needs of Muslim children were being met in the Australian education system." (nd) Historically, Australian schools have been "free, secular, and compulsory" and as well it is stated by Sanjakdar "...there is little provision for religious education." (2001) Sanjakdar states that on the other hand that Islamic education "one which endorses good morals, helps children maintain their cultural identity, including their mother tongue language and religious practice, is a major concern for many Muslim parents." (Sanjakdar, 2001)

Few studies have been conducted in relation to the "planning and development of Australian Islamic Schools" according to Sanjakdar (2001). Sanjakdar reports a study that used qualitative methods of research including in-depth interviews, participant's observation and document analysis" that focused on the examination of "both its hidden and core curriculum." (2001) the assumption of this study is stated to be "driving this Master of Education study, was that since Australian Muslims are committed to establishing Islamic schools, it would seem natural that these schools should have their own unique and distinctive contribution to make." (Sanjakdar, 2001) Specifically at focus in this study was the investigation of 'how this Islamic school provides an alternative to the secular based and Judeo-Christian nature of many Australian mainstream schools' curriculum." (Sanjakdar, 2001) the research study reported by Sanjakdar (2001) was ongoing for three years and it is stated that the problem "became trying to find evidence of Islamic education as the theoretical model in the curriculum practice of an established Islamic school." (Sanjakdar, 2001) Findings of the research "revealed the may pedagogical problems teachers faced with secular curriculum and the current curriculum paradox, where controversial areas in health (including sexuality education) are omitted yet the school curriculum claims to reflect Islamic values and beliefs." (Sanjakdar, 2001)

According to Sanjakdar each action performed by a Muslim including educational attainment is viewed as "an act of worship." (2001) Education is "fundamentally important to Muslims." (Sanjakdar, 2001) the incentive to learn is stated to be evidenced throughout the entirety of the Holy Qur'an which highlights the fact that the commandments of God can be little understood in the absence of knowledge and education and in fact it is stated in the Holy Qur'an as follows:

And those who are firmly grounded in knowledge say 'We believe in the Book, the whole of it is from our Lord' and none will grasp the message except men of understanding (sura 3, verse 7). To listen to instructions of science and learning for an hour is more meritorious than attending the funerals of a thousand martyrs and more meritorious than standing up in prayer for a thousand nights. (as cited in Sanjakdar, 2001)

Islamic education is stated to be "...based on iman, (faith), aqidah (belief) and tawhid (unity of God) and guided by the teaching from the Holy Qur'an, the Sunnah and Sharia (Islamic law)." (Sanjakdar, 2001) Sanjakdar states that in the consideration of a curriculum which has its roots in the values and beliefs of the Islamic faith "duality in education, that is splitting of knowledge into two distinctive types, secular and religious, with aims and objectives independent of each other" should be done away with because "for Muslims, education without an awareness of Allah (God) is 'meaningless (Mabud; 1992:90) and 'a contradiction in terms for a Muslim' (Hulmes, 1989:39; as cited in Sanjakdar, 2001) Learning is to be approached with the intent of the development of 'taqwa' stated to be a "highly developed and profound awareness of Allah" (Bhabha, 1997:3; as cited in Sanjakdar, 2001) the core of Islamic education is the seeking of knowledge "to guide the training of good character and personality." (Sanjakdar, 2001) the hidden curriculum is described by Sanjakdar as "the organization, the environment, total culture and ethos of a school" and is sated to be more frequently acknowledged as "significantly influencing students' attitudes and behaviors." (Sanjakdar, 2001)

The work of Elliot Eisner, as cited in the work of Sanjakdar provides a description for the hidden curriculum as follows: "...[although] seldom publicly announced, is intuitively recognized by parents, students and teachers. And because they are salient and pervasive features of schooling, what they teach may be among the most important lessons a child learns." (1994:97; as cited in: Sanjakdar, 2001) Sanjakdar states that participant's observation techniques were utilized and it was found that there are two specific roles that the "Islamic ethos at the College played" as follows:

The preservation of cultural heritage and the development of faith commitment; and the establishinment of Islamic identity. (Sanjakdar, 2001)

Sanjakdar additionally states that while provide guidance at the secondary school stage is something that might "seem alien to life in a Western materialistic society" it is viewed as the norm and in fact as a "priority at the College." This is described in the words of the College Deputy Director as follows:

One thing that tends to happen to a lot of Muslim children, especially in a predominant non-Muslim environment, is that they lack confidence in their own religion and own Islam, so they tend to want to suppress and hide what they've got. They do that in different ways. They adopt Christian names, they don't have any association with the form of the religion so they give up prayer, try to hide the fact that they are Muslims from their friends and they don't try to portray the strengths of Islam, but rather the weaknesses of it. So by being with others, who are Muslim, they can give expression of faith without any shame because everybody is doing it. So in fact, the peer group is the dominant group, so the Muslim culture becomes the dominant culture for them. (Sanjakdar, 2001)

Sanjakdar states that the greatest concern that teachers stated in the study was "finding the right balance between secular subjects and religious subjects, as expressed in the core curriculum..." (2001) While the importance of secular subjects was something that teachers did not deny, the study revealed that the teachers wanted a curriculum that is responsive "equally to the religious requirements as the academic success of the students." (2001) Criticism stated was in relation to the Colleges' secular ambition in that they felt that it was this "drive for academic success, that has made the College forget its focus, purpose for establishment and its religious obligations and commitment to parents." (Sanjakdar, 2001) the result is stated to be that "the true spirit and notion of an Islamic education is...'lost in the pool of all the other subjects'." (Sanjakdar, 2001) Another area of trouble is stated to be "the restricted structure of the current religious curriculum..." (Sanjakdar, 2001) Teachers expressed a concern that "students will raise and explore religious questions only in the religion class and the change that religious knowledge becomes compartmentalized will increase." (Sanjakdar, 2001)