Bullying, juvenile delinquency, and gender disparities in criminal justice

Juvenile Delinquency

Baldry, A.C. (2014). Bullying and juvenile delinquency. Organized Crime, Corruption, and Crime Prevention. 2014: 3-12.

Although this study focuses on a Southern Italian cohort, the results may be generalized and applied to any other population because it involves the relationship between bullying and juvenile delinquency. The author is a professor at the Second University of Naples. Findings in this research include the risk factors related to bullying. In particular, being a perpetrator of bullying in school is a "precursor of future violence," (Baldry, 2014, p. 3). The author frames bullying as a community problem, which is an important structural and systems approach to juvenile delinquency. I can apply the structural and systems approach to my research, focusing on gender issues.

Beerthuizen, M.G.C.J. (2012). The impact of morality on externalizing behavior: Values, reasoning, cognitive distortions and identity. Dissertation for Utrecht University.

As a dissertation, this study is not cited in external research and may not be considered a highly credible source of information. However, the author's approach and analysis prove valuable for a comprehensive understanding of juvenile delinquency. In particular, the author conducted four separate investigations. The first was related to moral values in young people. The second was related to the moral reasoning in a cohort of juveniles who had perpetrated sexual abuse. The third study examined the moral reasoning and value attribution and identity, and the fourth study provides a meta-analysis of fourteen scholarly papers on the externalizing behaviors of juveniles, related to moral judgment. The extensive body of research presented here will be valuable for helping me develop my hypotheses and offering a framework.

Chesney-Lind, M. & Shelden, R.G. (1998). Girls, Delinquency, and Juvenile Justice. 2nd Ed. Belmont: Wadsworth.

This book uses classical theories of juvenile delinquency, including conflict and strain theories. Although it was published in 1998, the book does show that patterns in female juvenile delinquency have not changed much over several generations. The information contained in this book is invaluable, as it points to the core problems related to gender issues in juvenile delinquency. Chesney-Lind is a specialist in gender issues in criminology; Shelden is a leading criminologist who has published dozens of articles, books, and book chapters on criminology, criminal justice, and gender issues in criminology. The authors contend that the juvenile justice system has served the male population to the exclusion of the female population, and that it is critical to take into account the needs and unique experiences of the female cohort. Furthermore, issues related to the sexualization of female delinquency raises core concerns about gender disparity that can be incorporated into my research.

Cullen, F.C., Jonson, C.L., Myer, A.J. & Adler, F. (2011). The Origins of American Criminology. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

This book offers a comprehensive set of research essays on criminology. It is published by a Rutgers University-associated social sciences publisher, and all the entries are scholarly in nature. The book is divided into several thematic parts including the Chicago School, the University of Pennsylvania school, and the social control and social learning debates prevalent in criminology. Although it offers a broad overview of the history and evolution of criminology studies in America, the book offers much to the researcher in juvenile delinquency and criminal justice responses to female delinquency in particular. The articles provide essential theoretical frameworks from which to build my research.

Gardner, M., Roth, J. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2011). Sports participation and juvenile delinquency: The role of the peer context among adolescent boys and girls with varied histories of problem behavior. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology 1(S), Aug 2011, 19-37.

This is a study of a large adolescent cohort (1344 urban adolescents) in the United States. Gardner, Roth & Brooks-Gunn (2011) are all criminologists or research psychologists and university professors. This research examines the relationship between participating in organized team sports and delinquency. The researchers controlled for gender and describe their results according to gender. Control groups included those who participated in non-athletic extracurricular activities. Variables like deviant peer associations and unstructured socializing mitigate any positive effects that participation in sports has on the juvenile. The information in this article can be applied to my research, as it is important to understand risk factors and ameliorative factors.

Hartman, J.L. & Sundt, J.L. (2011). The rise of feminist criminology: Freda Adler. Chapter 9 in The Origins of American Criminology. New Brunswich, NJ: Transaction.

This book chapter is authored by American two associate professors in criminology, and offers an overview of feminist theory in criminology. Crime patterns do vary according to gender, note the authors. However, public policy has failed to effectively serve the needs of the female juvenile population either in terms of preventative or judicial measures. The methodology of this book chapter is to examine in particular the contributions of Freda Adler to the field of feminist criminology. This research can be applied to my research on the relationship between gender and crime, and responses to gender-specific crimes in the juvenile justice system.

Hertz, R., Guggenheim, M. & Amsterdam, A.G. (2013). Trial manual for defense attorneys in juvenile delinquency cases. 2013 Edition. Available online: http://njdc.info/pdf/2013_Juvenile_Trial_Manual-Updated_Full_Version.pdf

This is a unique entry in my bibliography because it is a manual for trial lawyers working on juvenile justice cases. Unlike other entries, this is not about research but about procedure. It is therefore a valuable resource for knowing how female or male delinquents engage the criminal justice system, how the courts view them, and how attorneys handle cases. This manual also outlines important criteria including ethical guidelines for representing juvenile clients. Providing a rounded discussion, the authors are all attorneys in juvenile criminal justice and therefore well qualified to compose this report, which would also be useful from a professional point-of-view.

Khurana, A., Cooksey, E.C. & Gavazzi, S.M. (2011). Juvenile delinquency and teenage pregnancy. Psychology of Women Quarterly 35(2): 282-289.

Khurana works at the Annenberg Public Policy Center and the other two authors are on staff at the Ohio State University in different departments. Their work focuses on juvenile delinquency in the female population, related to the variable of pregnancy. The authors found that young African-American women who were in the juvenile justice system were three times as likely to have been pregnant in the past. These findings suggest the need for targeted intervention programs for African-American girls, with strong implications for anti-pregnancy strategies. The authors also found that white female inmates of juvenile detention centers were more likely to have substance abuse issues than their black counterparts. The implications of this research on mine will be explored.

Loeber, R., Capaldi, D.M. & Costello, E. (2013). Gender and the development of aggression, disruptive behavior, and delinquency from childhood to early adulthood. Chapter 6 in Disruptive Behavior Disorders Advances in Development and Psychopathology: Brain Research Foundation Symposium Series Volume 1, 2013, pp 137-160

All the authors are on staff as professors of psychology at reputable universities in the United States and are well qualified for this research. The authors' backgrounds in psychology ensures the presentation of material related to the psychological variables in juvenile delinquency. This research focuses on gender as a variable in the development of aggression, disruptive behavior, and delinquent behavior from childhood to early adulthood. There is no necessary trajectory from aggressive behavior in early childhood to disruptive behaviors in adulthood, which makes it extra important to examine critical variables and risk factors. Understanding the authors' findings will help me in my research.

Loeber, R., Farrington, D.P. & Petechuk, D. (2013). Bulletin 1: From Juvenile Delinquency to Young Adult Offending (Study Group on the Transitions Between Juvenile Delinquency and Adult Crime). National Institute of Justice Report. Retrieved: https://ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/242931.pdf

This is a publication of a federal criminal justice agency, the National Institute of Justice. The study group focused on the transition from adolescence to adulthood to see what trends emerge in delinquent behaviors. Although a small percentage of juvenile delinquents do go on to commit crimes in early adulthood, the authors found that the large majority of juvenile offenders do not commit crimes in young adulthood. The authors postulate a relationship between increased self-control, increased social control, and decreased impulses in explaining the results. This research is interesting to include in my research because it reveals outcomes of intervention.

Pataccini, E. & Zenou, Y. (2012). Juvenile delinquency and conformism. Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 28(1): 1-31.

The role of conformism and conformity attitudes plays a role in juvenile delinquent behavior. This research studies the relationship between conformism and behavioral outcomes, especially crime. The social network model used here can be extended for my research. Pataccini & Zenou (2012) are researchers at universities in Europe, with Pataccini at the University of Rome and Zenou at Stockholm University. The authors' approach is sociological in nature, providing me with the systems approach I need to address juvenile delinquency in my research. The results do show that conformity is a key factor in all crimes, but especially petty crimes.

Ryan, J.P., Hong, J.S., Herz, D. & Hernandez, P.M. (2010). Kinship foster care and the risk of juvenile delinquency. Children and Youth Services Review 32(12): 1823-1830.

This research explores the risk of delinquency among youth placed in foster care with known relatives. Kinship foster care is a preferred situation to stranger foster care, as kinship bonds are projected to ameliorate stress. The authors' credentials in child and youth services make this a valuable report to include in my research. The authors emphasize issues related to race and social class. The current study uses a large (13,396) sample size that is highly reliable and generalizable. Risk is greater for male adolescents vs. female adolescents for delinquency behaviors in whites and African-Americans. However, Hispanic females and males exhibited decreased tendencies toward delinquent behaviors in kinship foster care.

Siegel, L.J. & Welsh, B.C. (2012). Juvenile Delinquency. Belmont: Wadsworth.

Both authors have published extensively on subjects related to juvenile delinquency, and one (Welsh) is a Cambridge graduate. The credibility of the authors is bolstered by the fact that this is a textbook standard in the field of juvenile delinquency. The book provides ample background on theory, sociology, psychology, development, gender, family, and the criminal justice system. Shifts in social norms and public policies are addressed. Each chapter offers a wealth of information on the subject. Although it is broad in scope, the book contains invaluable information I need to incorporate into my research question on juvenile justice and gender.

Staff, J., Osgood, D.W., Schulenberg, J.E., Bachman, J.G. & Messersmith, E.E. (2010). Explaining the relationship between employment and juvenile delinquency. Criminology 48(4): 1101-1131.

Employment status is increasingly being recognized as a primary variable in juvenile delinquency. Staff, et al. (2010) examine whether the relationship between employment status and delinquency behaviors is causal. The authors, who all boast university credentials related to the field of criminal justice, use data from the Monitoring the Future Project as a population sample. A two-level hierarchical model was used to analyze the results. The authors found that there may be intervening variables, but that generally youth who desire work and who are not working may be at higher risk for delinquency. This article has been cited in research by others, making it a credible and valid study to include in my research.

United Nations World Youth Report, 2003. Chapter 7: Juvenile Delinquency. Retrieved: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/ch07.pdf

The United Nations World Youth Report of 2003 provides valuable statistics to incorporate into my research on juvenile delinquency. Although the report is several years old, it can be used for trending reports. Juvenile delinquency rates are rising worldwide, and this report offers some suggestions for causes as well as an explanation of the effects. Because this report offers a cross-cultural and trans-national approach, it is unique and offers a perspective that is not as American-centric as much of the research on juvenile delinquency. I will refer to this report for statistics on juvenile delinquency.

Review of Literature

There are many potential causes of juvenile delinquency. Research shows that there are distinct gender differences in juvenile delinquency, which is the focus of this research. Research on juvenile delinquency includes references to trends, etiologies, risk factors, and the role of social norms and socialization. Likewise, female experiences with the juvenile justice system are taken into account.

Psychological variables include conformism. Patacchini & Zenou (2012) found that conformism behaviors are linked to delinquency behaviors. This is especially true for petty crimes, suggesting that adolescents of both genders who are susceptible to peer pressure, for reasons like low self-esteem, may be at higher risk for committing petty crimes. A social strategy might help prevent petty crime in youth, which has implications for educational and public policy. Baldry (2014) also found that bullying is a form of delinquency, which can be viewed as a threat to community integrity due to the impact the aggression has on the victim and his or her family. It is critical to provide programs that target bullies in school and online.

Other nature-versus-nurture debates are prevalent in research related to juvenile delinquency. For example, not all juvenile delinquents become offending adults. (Loeber, Farrington & Petechuk, 2013). The factors that definitely lead to adult criminality may be related to personality traits, psychological variables, or environmental stressors. Teenage pregnancy is a risk factor correlated with juvenile delinquency. Khurana, Cooksey & Gavazzi (2011) found that especially among African-American females, being pregnant was correlated with time spent in a juvenile detention center. It is important to know what variables are responsible for the connection, and if those variables are psychological or sociological in nature. Another psychological variable explored in the research is morality or moral judgment. Beerthuizen (2012) conducted four separate studies and found that moral reasoning lead to low expressions of delinquent behaviors in young people. The use of valid tools for measuring moral reasoning is explored, such as the Sociomoral Reflection Measure - Short Form Objective (SRM-SFO). Other studies examine the increased rates of violence among people who have preconventional moral reasoning patterns (Beerthuizen, 2012). In general, moral reasoning must be taken into account by pscyhologists who are evaluating juveniles who are at risk or already exhibiting behavioral problems.

Gender differences in juvenile violence are the focal point of this research, because it is necessary to provide more interventions that prevent delinquency in adolescent females. Loeber, Capaldi & Costello (2013) found that violence patterns differ between male and female adolescents, with females more likely to direct violence toward a mother or dating partner. Chesney-Lind & Shelden (1998) assessed data acquired via ten interviews. Gang membership, exposure to violence and abuse, drug and alcohol abuse, pregnancy, drug-addicted babies, and other factors are taken into consideration as variables. Historical data is compared with current trends in epidemiology to present new models for policy development in the realm of female juvenile delinquency and responses thereto. Female delinquency patterns may be related to prior abuse experiences, and the results of female delinquency are different than male delinquency (Chesney-Lind & Shelden, 1998). Hartman & Sundt (2011) discuss critical feminist theories that can and should be incorporated into research on juvenile delinquency. Whereas many theories emphasize causes and outcomes for young men, emerging theories address both the risk factors and results of female juvenile delinquency. Behavioral patterns are different between men and women, which is why a differential treatment and public policy approach is warranted.

Social engagement may be a mitigating factor in juvenile delinquency. However, the type of social engagement is critical for outcomes. Gardner, Roth & Brooks-Gunn (2011) found that adolescents of both genders who participated in structured sports activities did indicate less tendency toward juvenile delinquency. The groups that participated in non-athletic activities also had less delinquency measures, but sports were more clearly associated with the result. Interestingly, there was a difference between groups that also engaged in unstructured socializing in addition to the sports and other social engagements. Unstructured activities often led to drug and alcohol use, which mitigated the positive effects that came from participation in the group activities. Therefore, it is important to ensure that young people have access to structured activities that are athletic and non-athletic in nature.