Juvenile Offenders and Juvenile

¶ … Dugan: Should be on its own page.

Juvenile recidivism is a prevalent problem in the criminal justice system. Tackling reoffending remains a complex task requiring several strategies and aims. It involves research, acknowledgement of causes, factors, exploration, and evaluation of subgroups to generate long-term, positive changes in the lives of juvenile offenders. From gang violence to Interactive, Constructive, Active, and Passive (ICAP), researchers discover some of the reasons why juveniles reoffend and the kinds of intervention methods that may help or worsen the problem of juvenile recidivism. Intervention philosophies like surveillance, discipline, close monitoring may increase recidivism rates. Restorative programs, counseling, skill building programs, as well as multiple coordinated services decrease recidivism rates. Comment by Max Dugan: I would put evaluation at the end of the list vs. first. Comment by Max Dugan: Need to spell out all acronyms before using in APA format.

Relevance

Juvenile offenders and reoffenders are an important problem facing the United States criminal justice system. For more than one hundred years, states held the belief that the juvenile justice system acted as a vehicle to safeguard the public via offering a structure that enables the rehabilitation of children growing into adulthood. States identified the difference of children committing crimes versus adult offenders (Loeber & Farrington, 2012). For example, the states saw them as less blameworthy with a higher capacity for longstanding, true change. Therefore, states have founded a distinct court system especially for the handling and rehabilitation of juvenile offenders along with a separate and different youth-based service delivery system that offers additional aid not found in the adult justice system.

The juvenile justice system offers insight into the study of criminal justice. It is an important area for development of proper rehabilitation techniques that will help juvenile offenders and reoffenders find a means of becoming self-sufficient law abiding adults in society. Rehabilitative efforts have improved but still fall short of achieving their goals even with the expansion of criminal justice professions. Criminal justice professions have grown in the juvenile offender area (Loeber & Farrington, 2012). New roles are meant to engage juvenile offenders on a level that promotes growth and rehabilitation. These roles are youth security specialists, juvenile rehabilitation security officer, and juvenile rehabilitation counselor (Krohn & Lane, 2015). These jobs shift the juvenile justice system towards enabling positive transitions of juvenile offenders into law-abiding adults. Comment by Max Dugan: If you have reoffenders then is there an issue with the rehabilitation used? Comment by Max Dugan: These roles are security specialists, rehabilitation security officer and rehabilitation counselor.

Society benefits the most from research and study in the area of juvenile offenders (Bates & Swan, 2013). Juvenile offenders can and do develop into adult offenders if not properly rehabilitated that then reoffend and create potential problems for the public. They can become a danger to society if the juvenile offenders feel they have no option but to engage in delinquent behavior. Many times, juvenile delinquents need guidance to avoid reoffending as seen through the ICAP framework. "The ICAP hypothesis predicts that as students become more engaged with the learning materials, from passive to active to constructive to interactive, their learning will increase" (Chi & Wylie, 2014, p. 219). Should juvenile offenders receive assistance that enables higher levels of engagement in key areas like academics and skills, the potential for recidivism may decrease. That guidance cannot be achieved without proper research conducted to discover what techniques are needed to help juvenile offenders avoid reoffending. Comment by Max Dugan: If not properly rehabilitated. Comment by Max Dugan: Are there cases that show this isn't the case? Otherwise this sentence looks like filler.

Introduction

Juvenile offenders are an important part of the criminal justice system. They are the population of offenders that benefit the most from rehabilitation and have the greatest potential for change (Bates & Swan, 2013). Programs created to aid juvenile offenders and prevent them from reoffending have not been as successful as intended in the last thirty years. However, recent changes to strategies and theoretical have increased (Machteld & Vanderland, 2016). Comment by Max Dugan: Reference -- what time frame are you talking about?

This paper focuses on juvenile offenders and juvenile re-offense rates. Emphasis on various theories and techniques pulled from research suggest decreased recidivism and growth through the application of programs that aim to understand juvenile recidivism in order to circumvent its continued occurrence. Such theories explored are integrated cognitive antisocial potential theory, self-control theory, life-course persistent theory, and social bond theory. Further insight into gang violence, and a look into existing programs demonstrating effective juvenile rehabilitation offer a comprehensive look into juvenile recidivism. Comment by Max Dugan: spacing

Juvenile offenders must be understood to be successfully rehabilitated. Without a framework from which to generate an adequate base of understanding, effective strategies remain absent in the advent of program interventions and juvenile delinquents. The juvenile justice system has seen changes in the last few decades and theoretical perspective is one of those changes (Machteld & Vanderland, 2016). This paper seeks to provide the means with which to determine whether juvenile recidivism has decreased in the last five years thanks to new interventions and what causes juvenile offenders to reoffend. Comment by Max Dugan: Time frame

Juvenile offenders often commit crimes for a variety of reasons. Juveniles delinquents are defined as minors between the ages of 10-18, who have committed an act that violates the law. Rather than labeled as crimes, crimes perpetrated by juvenile delinquents are called delinquent acts (Loeber & Farrington, 2012). The main timeframe for juvenile offenders to commit most of their crimes during childhood is in their late teenage years (age 15 to 19) with the peak declining as they enter young adult hood (early 20's). Juveniles are often tried as adults once they reach the age of 18. Amongst Western populations, this age-crime bell-shaped curve is considered universal. When examining the nature of crimes committed, violent crimes occur later in youth compared to property crimes. Gender also plays a role with the curve peaking sooner for girls versus boys. Minority young males, often have the wider and higher curve due to exposure to crime and violence within the disadvantaged neighborhoods they grow up in each year. Comment by Max Dugan: It would be good to tell what age groups you are speaking about -- what is considered a juvenile in the court system? Comment by Max Dugan: When is a juvenile become an adult in juvenile court?

The environment of disadvantaged neighborhoods can be negative with gang violence, assaults, and domestic problems being prevalent among members of the community. Many have noted the lack of stability in these areas as a main predictor for juvenile delinquency (Baglivio, Wolff, Piquero, & Epps, 2015). This is not to say poverty or environment is the only reason for juvenile offenders to commit crimes. Some juvenile offenders commit crimes due to early exposure to drugs and alcohol (Baglivio, Wolff, Piquero, & Epps, 2015). This reason may not depend on socioeconomic status and can happen in any neighborhood.

Whatever the reason may be, juvenile offenders more likely than not, stop offending after their transition into adulthood. "...many juvenile delinquents tend to stop offending in late adolescence and early adulthood" (Machteld & Vanderland, 2016). However, research suggests those that commit crimes early (before the age of 12), will most likely continue to offend as they become adults. Children that commit crimes at an early age may do so due to some form of abuse they endured when they were young (Chouhy, Cullen, & Unnever, 2014). While this is not the case for all young juvenile offenders, abuse and an unstable home life may contribute to a higher occurrence of juvenile delinquency.

Another potential reason for juvenile delinquency is mental illness. Some youth suffer from depression, anxiety, and other mental health disorders that increase the likelihood for juvenile delinquency (Chouhy, Cullen, & Unnever, 2014). Those that suffer from mental illness need assistance in building positive coping mechanisms that can help them avoid actions that lead to further criminal offense. Comment by Max Dugan: proof reading

By becoming aware of the multiple reasons why juveniles offend, this can then generate a deeper understanding of what can be done to avoid juveniles from offending or reoffending. Strategies aimed to prevent juvenile delinquency must take into consideration the various hurdles youth must face as they grow and transition into adulthood. These hurdles require new strategies aimed at delivering better options for youth. From summer and afterschool programs to cognitive behavioral therapy, it takes a multi-faceted approach to provide a long-lasting positive effect for any juvenile offender.

Causes for juvenile re-offense Comment by Max Dugan: Not sure this font is APA for headingsLong, formal papers should have headings especially if they include an abstract at the beginning.Here are the five levels and how they should be formatted:

1. Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

2. Left-aligned, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

3. Indented five spaces, boldface, lowercase heading with a period. Begin the text of your first sentence after the period.

4. Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase heading with a period. Begin the text of your first sentence after the period.

5. Indented, italicized, lowercase heading with a period. Begin the text of your first sentence after the period. Comment by Max Dugan: Review the APA examplehttps://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/18/

While juvenile delinquency has its causes, recidivism also has its own reasons. Some of these causes are similar to first-offense juvenile delinquency, while others are based on the criminal justice system structure and lack of effective initiatives that provide support and options for juvenile offenders. Many juvenile offenders re-offend, with males reoffending more than females (Krohn & Lane, 2015). Of the ones that re-offended, the causes result from substance abuse problems, mental health problems, household characteristics, academic performance, and abusive family environment.

When it came to structural problems, youth 'placed in persons in need of supervision' (PINS), had lower recidivism rates than those placed in the category of juvenile offenders and juvenile delinquents. Those charged with violent crimes had higher recidivism rates than those that were charged with nonviolent crimes (Krohn & Lane, 2015). Research suggests the four main causes for higher rates of recidivism are age at discharge, criminal history, mental health, and community characteristics (Law & Quick, 2012). Comment by Max Dugan: spacing

Age can play an important role in recidivism. Earlier research noted juvenile offenders that committed crimes before the age of 12 end up reoffending. While other research suggests committing crimes in the late teenage years could lead to higher rates of recidivism in the early twenties (Chouhy, Cullen, & Unnever, 2014). The nature of the crime can play a role in the risk of reoffending. A juvenile offender's criminal history shows the nature of the crimes committed by the juvenile offender, and the number of crimes the court system charged the juvenile offender. Comment by Max Dugan: This reads like a modifier that age isn't such a main cause for recidivism

Some of the causes of recidivism like substance abuse and mental health problems can come as a result of community characteristics. Communities with higher rates of poverty, gang violence, and drug dealing will create the kind of environment that may lead a juvenile offender to reoffend. This is especially true if the nature of the crime committed by the juvenile offender revolves around drugs or violence. In a 2012 study on factors for juvenile recidivism, offender type proved to be the one factor with the most impact on recidivism rates. "Offender type was the only factor found to have a significant impact on recidivism with general and substance-involved offenders more likely to recidivate than sex offenders" (Calley, 2012, p. 257).

High recidivism rates may also be attributable to lack of program continuity during the transition phase and inconsistency of approach between program staff (Liem, 2013). Programs have been generated with limited continuity transitions in mind. Although some see improvement among its program participants on some level, this is only short-term. Rehabilitation programs aimed to reduce recidivism rates fall short from achieving their goals (Liem, 2013). The lack of success with rehabilitation programs could be due to the lack of adequate mental health services available to juvenile offenders. Mental health problems are a big part of why juvenile offenders reoffend. Promotion of effective coping mechanisms enable a decrease in recidivism rates (Loeber & Farrington, 2012). Comment by Max Dugan: This made me go back and read the initial cause paragraph where you say this:Research suggests the three main causes for higher rates of recidivism are age at discharge, criminal history, and community characteristicsMental health isn't mentioned?

Mental health problems seen in juvenile offenders

The aim of the criminal justice system as it relates to juvenile offenders is to rehabilitate them. Rehabilitative efforts can be most effective with juveniles versus adults. "According to Garascia (2005), the juvenile justice system was originally both a rehabilitative and preventative approach, emphasizing the needs and rights of children over the appeal to punish them" (Underwood & Washington, 2016, p. 228). However, as time passed, the aim to rehabilitate juvenile offenders have decreased and instead, shifted towards punitive efforts. "In 1960 approximately 1,100 delinquency cases were processed daily, while in 2009 juvenile courts handled about 4000, delinquency cases daily, and in 2013, approximately 2900, delinquency cases were processed daily...the number of delinquency cases increased 30% between 1985 and 2009" (Underwood & Washington, 2016, p. 228). Comment by Max Dugan: comma Comment by Max Dugan: comma

The shift towards punitive efforts has led to lackluster rehabilitative efforts. This is an unfortunate turn as evidence states many in the juvenile justice system have mental health problems. "Estimates reveal approximately 50 to 75% of the 2 million youth encountering the juvenile justice system meet criteria for a mental health disorder. Approximately 40 to 80% of incarcerated juveniles have at least one diagnosable mental health disorder" (Underwood & Washington, 2016, p. 229). Forty to eighty percent is a high number and should be recognized as a potential reason for juvenile recidivism and recidivism in adulthood. These mental health problems can range from depression, to psychotic disorders, and disruptive behavior disorders. Comment by Max Dugan: spacing

Understanding the link between youthful offending and mental health difficulties is significant when creating an appropriate treatment response. When mental health problems are handled with effective strategies, this can have a direct and positive impact on juvenile recidivism (MEARS et al., 2014). Effective coping mechanisms typically contain self-awareness and self-monitoring techniques that provide a means from which youth can perform self-assessments of their thoughts and feelings. These thoughts and feelings often lead to negative behaviors that then lead to recidivism. Another aspect of effective coping is building competency (Vila-Ballo, Hdez-Lafuente, Rostan, Cunillera, & Rodriguez-Fornells, 2014).

When juvenile offenders learn skills that provide job opportunities and allow for better academic performance in school, the rates of recidivism decrease (Vila-Ballo, Hdez-Lafuente, Rostan, Cunillera, & Rodriguez-Fornells, 2014). Competency building helps those with mental health problems build confidence and skills they need to continue their efforts towards a fruitful and worthwhile adulthood. So many rehabilitative programs and treatment facilities do not take into consideration self-awareness/self-assessment cultivation and competency training. They fail to understand why juveniles offend and what can be done to prevent recidivism. Instead many of these programs deal with substance abuse problems and apply rehabilitative efforts through surveillance, deterrence, and discipline. Those programs that aim to provide multiple coordinated services that include counseling, skill building, and case management fare better at decreasing recidivism rates. Recent literature has provided valuable insight into such programs.

Literature Review

This literature review aims to provide a deeper understanding of theory, factors in juvenile recidivism, juvenile sex offenders, and a brief exploration into criminological theories. Juvenile offenders must contend with both environmental and mental influences in order to avoid recidivism. Research, exploration, and development of theory plays a positive role in generation of effective strategies to reduce recidivism rates. The first part of the literature review will be in understanding juvenile offenders and why they commit crimes.

Understanding Juvenile Offenders

Juvenile delinquency or juvenile offending means when a minor participates in illegal activities (Binder, Geis, & Bruce Jr., 2001). Most juvenile delinquent behavior does not fall under the same degree and punitive treatment as would adult crimes. Although some juvenile court cases have been treated as adult court cases, most juveniles do not face such treatment. Juvenile recidivism has seen in increase in recent years with juveniles reaching adulthood and facing rearrests in their early 20's. This could be due to zero-tolerance policies instead of significant changes in juvenile behavior. Juveniles that commit crime can be charged with a variety of offenses. Some offenses can be as low-level as underage smoking to higher-level offenses like murder. Property and status offenses make the bulk of juvenile offending (Burfeind & Bartusch, 2015). Comment by Max Dugan: spacing Comment by Max Dugan: low level murder?

Research states juvenile offending is versatile with juvenile offenders branching out to other crimes once they re-offend. "Several studies have shown that those who engage in serious, violent offenses tend to engage in a variety of both violent and non-violent offenses...most youth are versatile, rather than specialized in their offending" (Burfeind & Bartusch, 2015, p. 158). The authors continue stating the older the juvenile offender becomes, the more diverse their offending becomes. As they reach adulthood, that is when specialization takes place. "Some recent research suggests that offenders tend to become more specialized in offending as they age, with increasing diversity in offending during adulthood" (Burfeind & Bartusch, 2015, p. 158). Comment by Max Dugan: they

The progression from non-violent to violent crimes for juvenile offenders is what leads to juvenile recidivism (Burfeind & Bartusch, 2015). Most juvenile offenders do not transition from non-violent to violent crimes. However, if they do, that is when they will most likely re-offend. This leads to the notion that to prevent escalation of offenses, it important to deal with juvenile offending at the non-violent level. The authors continue by examining the components of juvenile delinquency and suggest mental health problems, drug and alcohol use add to the desire to commit crimes (Burfeind & Bartusch, 2015). Comment by Max Dugan: 46-word long laborious sentence

Researchers link crimes committed by juvenile offenders due to the neighborhood they live in, their household structure, or mental health problems (Grebstein & Van Wyk, 2015). However, there is also another factor to juvenile offending and that is racial profiling among law enforcement. Police and law enforcement arrest more blacks than whites in relation to crimes (Grebstein & Van Wyk, 2015). Arrests can lead to additional arrests for violation of probation. Such actions can then lead to higher rates of recidivism among those with a criminal record due to lack of job options and decreased ability to successfully integrate into society.

Inability to integrate into society can have negative consequence for juvenile offenders. They may develop mood disorders due to their inability to cope with the harsh reality of their life. The writers discussed the Ocean Tide boys case study and how these boys developed suicidal tendencies and depressive disorders. "Mood disorders diagnosed among the Ocean Tides boys include depressive and bipolar disorders. Suicidal tendencies are often associated with depressive disorders. Suicidal gestures refer to nonlethal attempts that represent a 'cry for help'" (Grebstein & Van Wyk, 2015, p. 35-36).

Juvenile offenders are often plagued with anxiety at home and need help dealing with the burdens of a troubled home life. The Ocean Tides boys are just one of many examples of juvenile offenders seeking to express themselves through negative ways. The case supports the idea that to rehabilitate juvenile offenders and help them avoid reoffending, the core problems of why they offend must be understood and dealt with in order to see any real progress. Males juvenile offenders especially are at risk for reoffending and need help to cope with the environment they face after going through the court system. Comment by Max Dugan: spacing

It is important not to seek punitive methods to rehabilitate juvenile offenders. Punitive methods have seen little success (Grebstein & Van Wyk, 2015). While punitive measures have their place in the juvenile justice system, most juvenile offenses, especially the non-violent ones could be resolved without it. Research must lean towards the common mental health problems facing juvenile offenders and what techniques and therapies work to help those suffering from these conditions.

The next section will focus on integrated cognitive antisocial potential theory. It will explore the theory and how it is applied in the context of juvenile offenders. It will provide a basis from which to see what can be done to decrease recidivism rates.

Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential Theory

Developmental theories as well as life-course criminology or DLC (Developmental Life Course) is concerned chiefly with three subjects. The first is the development of antisocial behavior and offending from birth to death. The second is the influence of protective and risk factors throughout various ages. The third is the consequences of life events on development. "DLC theories aim to explain within-individual changes in offending over time (Morizot & Kazemian, 2014, p. 38). While DLC aims to provide some understanding of juvenile delinquent behavior, integrated cognitive behavior antisocial potential theory (ICAP theory) is mainly designed to help explain the reasons behind offending lower class males. This theory came from results collected in the Cambridge Study (Morizot & Kazemian, 2014). Since many juvenile offenders, especially reoffenders are lower class males, it is important to understand how this theory can be used to reduce recidivism. Comment by Max Dugan: spacing

ICAP integrates concepts from numerous other theories. This includes control, labeling, strain, learning, as well as rational choice approaches. "Its key construct is antisocial potential, and it assumes that the translation from antisocial potential to antisocial behavior depends on cognitive processes that take account of opportunities and victims (Morizot & Kazemian, 2014, p. 28). Within the ICAP framework, the main construct underlying offending is antisocial potential (AP). AP involves the potential to commit antisocial acts (Morizot & Kazemian, 2014). Comment by Max Dugan: APA format is antisocial potential (AP)

The Cambridge Study revealed that childhood risk factors not only increased the likelihood of offending among juveniles, but that it increased it to 85% when juveniles were exposed to five or six childhood risk factors. Lower class males often live in unstable households where they experience abuse, poverty, and neglect. These can increase the risk of offending among that group. Childhood risk factors thus become a key means of assessing the likelihood of offending among juveniles. "However, most individuals desist from crime after age 40 and thus childhood risk factors can help to identify high-rate offenders during the years of their active criminal careers" (Morizot & Kazemian, 2014, p. 28).

The ICAP theory is a great framework because it enables identification of risk and protective factors that can lead to a deeper understanding of who within the juvenile population will offend and what can be done to avoid these troubled groups from offending or reoffending. As a 2014 article by Farrington notes, the ICAP theory enables recognition of situational factors that have an influence on short-term AP. "It also specifies the cognitive processes that influence whether the antisocial potential becomes the actuality of offending in any situation and the consequences of offending that have feedback influences on antisocial potential" (Farrington, 2014, p. 2552).

The major proponent of ICAP, David Farrington became one of the most productive researchers in the area of developmental theories (Farrington & Loeber, 2012). Farrington's theory, which came from years of studying causes and correlations of numerous different theoretical viewpoints, highlights an important cognitive process (empathy) that translates AP to antisocial behavior (AB). Empathy serves as a cognitive and affective trait facilitating the experience of someone's emotions and an understanding of these emotions (Farrington & Loeber, 2012). Under the concepts in this theory, juveniles that lack empathy have an easier time committing a crime versus those that have empathy. Empathy promotes understanding someone else's feelings and perspective, and feeling common humanity. Comment by Max Dugan: Is he the only proponent or just a major proponent? Comment by Max Dugan: Not APA acronym format

The factors that play a role in decreasing the empathy of a juvenile, which can lead to committing crimes lies at the heart of ICAP. The center of the ICAP theory is delinquency and what can lead to delinquent acts. Low empathy and deviant decision-making can lead to delinquency. Deviant cognitive thinking patterns and antisocial potential can lead to delinquency. According to Farrington antisocial potential is only high among a select group of people, for example pathological liars (Farrington & Loeber, 2012). Comment by Max Dugan: liars?

ICAP also provides an explanation as to why males are more delinquent and commit more violent crimes than females. Females, unlike males, acquire early in life social cognitive skills that enable better handling of stress. This means they will talk more rather than create violent outbursts in order to handle disputes. Those with high AP are more likely to exhibit this kind of behavior and thus are more likely to commit crimes. While only a few within the population have high AP, those that do may provide a clear indicator of potential criminal activity in the near future (Farrington & Loeber, 2012).

ICAP shows the way to identify potential recidivism in select populations as well as what factors may keep juveniles from reoffending. However, there is not enough research on protective factors. Protective factors and intervention experiments aiming towards protective factors needs to be explored. As these factors, could decrease recidivism and provide a standard outline that can be applied to various juvenile rehabilitation programs, especially with subgroups of lower class males.

This section highlighted integrated cognitive behavior antisocial potential theory and its use within the juvenile justice system. Many juveniles, especially those that reoffend are lower class males. They may reoffend due to risk factors in their life. They may reoffend due to high antisocial potential, or they may reoffend due to lack of protective factors. ICAP sheds light on these factors and generates a chance to further explore these concepts. The next section will explore the environment lower class males typically must endure as they transition into adulthood. This environment can play host to a number of negative influences such as gangs and violence.

Gangs and Violence

Gangs and the violence seen in gangs can play a role in whether a juvenile offender reoffends. Participation in gangs and gang related activities is common among minority and lower class males. Several studies highlight the increase in violent crimes and violent incidents if the juvenile is involved in a gang. "Depending on the comparison group (gang youth, overall sample), periods of active gang membership were associated with a 10 or 21% increase in the odds of involvement in violent incidents" (Melde & Esbensen, 2012, p. 143). Gang culture involves the use of peer pressure and group mentality to enable individuals who would not commit certain crimes on their own, engage in unlawful behavior.

The 2012 article notes that by leaving the gang, absolute levels of violence for juvenile offenders decreased. "...leaving the gang their propensity for violence was not significantly different than comparison group observations, although levels of general offending remain elevated. Preventing youth from gang membership or shortening the length of gang careers through interventions may reduce absolute levels of violence" (Melde & Esbensen, 2012, p. 143). Gangs and gang culture promotes violence in several ways. From gang initiation to protecting one's turf, gang activities can place a juvenile offender in situations where said juvenile offender will reoffend.

In order to combat recidivism among juvenile offenders, gang involvement must be assessed. This factor while not seen in every case, can be an influence for those that live in low-income neighborhoods. These neighborhoods have higher crime rates and higher gang activity. Juvenile offenders are vulnerable to these kinds of negative influences and need strategies aimed at avoid gang involvement. Such strategies may help subsequently, reduce recidivism rates.

Another article deals with violence and juvenile offenders history of violence in the form of child abuse and neglect. The article states juvenile offenders that experienced child abuse and/or neglect were more likely to commit crimes. The researchers even stated neglect may be a reason for juveniles to reoffend. "Victims of child abuse and neglect are at an increased risk of involvement with the juvenile justice and adult correctional systems. Neglect likely plays a critical role in continued offending as parental monitoring, parental rejection and family relationships explain juvenile conduct problems" (Ryan, Williams, & Courtney, 2013, p. 454).

Adolescents need assistance and supervision as they mature and age into young adults. The lack of supervision and the lack of structure in their home can lead to higher rates of recidivism, which can then promote additional problems among the specific population. "Adolescents with an ongoing case neglect were significantly more likely to continue offending compared with youth with no history of neglect. These findings remain after controlling for a wide range of family, peer, academic, mental health, and substance abuse covariates" (Ryan, Williams, & Courtney, 2013, p. 454). Programs aimed to help juvenile offenders should contain a monitoring and supervisory protocol that will enable identification of neglect within a juvenile offender's household. This may provide some relief for juvenile offenders and provide the basis from which to refer them to a program or foster care that will provide the supervision they need to avoid reoffending.

The study concludes with suggesting continual dependency issues may play an important role in recidivism. "The findings of the current study indicate that ongoing dependency issues play a critical role in explaining the outcomes achieved for adolescents in juvenile justice settings" (Ryan, Williams, & Courtney, 2013, p. 454). This article demonstrated neglect, child abuse, and dependency are key factors in potential recidivism. Further research on dependency is needed.

A 2015 study explored the possible correlation between impulsivity and criminal behavior. "Logistic regression analyses reveal a strong relationship between impulsiveness and criminal behavior, regardless of age. Susceptibility to peer pressure and perceived risk that friends would be arrested were found to predict future criminal activity among younger adolescents" (Leverso, Bielby, & Hoelter, 2015, p. 67). The study revealed two things, young juvenile offenders are more prone to committing crimes due to peer pressure and regardless of age, impulsivity can be a main cause of criminal behavior. Gangs and violence go hand in hand and involve a tight knight group of people that swear loyalty to the gang. Young gang members may feel the need to continue committing crimes because their peers instruct, persuade, or coerce them into doing so.

Leverso, Bielby, & Hoelter site external factors like gang membership as having a negative effect on juvenile offenders and creates a higher risk for juvenile offenders to reoffend. "External factors such as amount of social support and gang membership have varying effects over time" (Leverso, Bielby, & Hoelter, 2015, p. 67). In order to reduce recidivism among those influenced by gangs, they must be taken out of the gang environment and given some form of social support. Social support can play an important role in how a juvenile handles a problem in their lives and how they control their impulsiveness.

A 2014 study analyzing Risk Factor Prevention Paradigm (RFPP) revealed programs that incorporated a multifaced approach to gang violence prevention through skill building and employment opportunities saw reduction in gang participation and thus gang violence (Goddard, 2014). Interpretations of RFPP within gang violence and local youth prevention practice/policy led to success or failure of such programs in affecting the lives of youths involved in gangs. To help those affected by gang culture, they must have alternatives present to have the skills and options available to leave a gang or escape gang violence.

This section dealt with gangs and violence. The next section will provide insight into juvenile sex offenders. Juvenile sex offenders share some similarities to juvenile offenders. By examining what may cause them to reoffend, it can provide a clearer picture on juvenile recidivism.

Juvenile Sex Offenders

At times, some juveniles have engaged in sexual abuse of others. Sexual abuse of children is prevalent and exists throughout the world as a main moral issue in society. In the U.S. alone there are roughly 250,000 to 300,000 reported cases of child sexual abuse each year (Cale, Smallbone, Rayment-Mchugh, & Dowling, 2015). Sex abuse survivors are estimated to be 60 million in the United States. The amount of sexual abuse cases where a juvenile is the perpetrator is estimated to be at around 20% (Cale, Smallbone, Rayment-Mchugh, & Dowling, 2015).

The learning theory may provide some understanding in why juveniles commit sexual crimes. Learning theory links many factors to sexual crimes such as exposure to violence and/or sexuality, sexual victimization, exposure to substance abuse, child pornography, and advertising, exposure to family violence and/or aggressive role models, and increased arousal to children.

A 2015 article explore such factors including body disapproval and sexually aggressive behaviors. "Using a large sample of male youth adjudicated for sexual crimes (N = 306), we examined the relationship between body disapproval, childhood sexual abuse, and sexually aggressive behaviors using four different linear regression models" (O'Brien, Burton, & Li, 2015, p. 39). Researchers from the study found body disapproval to be a key reason into development of sexually aggressive behavior in juveniles. "19.6% of the sample youth self-reported at least clinically concerning levels of body disapproval. These results indicate that the incorporation of body disapproval treatment may be useful in overall treatment of some male youth who have perpetrated sexual crimes" (O'Brien, Burton, & Li, 2015, p. 39).

By improving the self-image of juveniles who sexually offend, it may prevent recidivism among that subgroup. "The link between maltreatment and offending has been well established in the literature, with research examining the etiology of criminal behavior consistently documenting the negative effects of experiencing trauma early in life" (Reckdenwald, Mancini, & Beauregard, 2014, p. 85). Body image and self-esteem are integral in forming a good self-image, generating an identity, and enabling growth of positive coping mechanisms to stress. This article shed light on a possible way to decrease recidivism among juvenile sex offenders.

Another study demonstrated strongest individual predictors as it relates to sexual recidivism among juvenile sex offenders. "The results show the strongest individual predictors of sexual recidivism to be prior nonsexual offending (criminal activity), prior sexual offending, hands-off offending, offending against a child, younger school grade/age at time of initial offense, Asian or Hispanic ethnicity, and not attending school" (Christiansen & Vincent, 2013, p. 506). The inclusion of Asian/Hispanic ethnicity may seem controversial. This part of the results can be hard to accept as a potential determiner for recidivism and should have been explored further by the researchers. Comment by Max Dugan: meaning criminal activity?

What does seem to be a determiner for recidivism is prior history of offending as seen in a 2013 quantitative study examining the court case outcomes of youth in South Australia.

Court youth had a higher rate of re-offending than conference youth, but these differences were largely explained by prior offending. For the subgroup with no previous offending, however, a significantly slower rate of re-offending was observed for conference youth and for those who were referred to Mary Street (Daly, Bouhours, Broadhurst, & Loh, 2013, p. 241).

This study provides evidence of the connection between prior offense history and recidivism. The study also included youth charged with sexual offenses such as indecent exposure. The researchers demonstrated youth with no prior delinquent behavior were either slow to reoffend or did not reoffend especially new sexual offenses with only 9% showing sexual recidivism.

Overall, the Christiansen & Vincent 2013, study provided clues into what causes sexual recidivism among juveniles and what can be done to avoid increasing sexual recidivism rates. One of the predictors such as not attending school can easily be remedied by enrolling the juvenile sex offender into school and providing them with the tools to succeed academically (Hoberman & Phenix, 2015). Instilling confidence in a juvenile sex offender in terms of learning and academic performance can help these offenders reduce the likelihood of reoffending. Successful academic performance and the routine of participating in school related activities can lend to a feeling of stability and normalcy as well as skill building that may help the juvenile sex offender develop positive coping mechanisms to outside stressors.

Competency training is an important aspect of decreasing recidivism rates for juvenile offenders. The same can be said for juvenile sex offenders. While juvenile sex offenders may be in the same class as juvenile offenders, the nature of their crimes often have different motivations and causes (Hoberman & Phenix, 2015). The next article examines the traits of juvenile sex offenders. Juvenile sex offenders are not restricted to one socioeconomic class, but exist throughout all cultures and socioeconomic classes. This makes them harder to identify as no specific subgroup can be used aside from most juvenile sex offenders being male.

Impulsivity has been important predictor for potential for criminal activity. The same can be said of sexual crimes. Most research suggests many juvenile sex offenders are male and commit their first sex crime prior to turning 15 and in some cases before the age of 12 (Riser, Pegram, & Farley, 2013). The researchers also state juvenile sex offenders are found in every ethnic, racial, cultural, and religious group regardless of socioeconomic class. The researchers also discovered many of juvenile sex offenders have been sexually abused themselves or have endured some other form of abuse such physical, emotional, and verbal. In fact, many note the lack of juvenile sex offenders and sex offenders in general, that have not experienced abuse in their past (Riser, Pegram, & Farley, 2013, p. 9). Comment by Max Dugan: Proof reading

The researchers identified common traits identified in juvenile sex offenders. The first is mental illness with some suggesting 80% of juvenile sex offenders have some diagnosable psychiatric disorder, high rates of academic dysfunction and learning disabilities, and difficulties with judgement and impulse control (Riser, Pegram, & Farley, 2013). Sexual abuse is an important issue in society that must be given extra attention to through identification of risk factors and traits. "Because sexual abuse is an ongoing issue in our society that is often oversimplified, this article distinguishes between the various risk factors that predict sexually abusive behavior and types of sex offenders, particularly recidivistic offenders" (Riser, Pegram, & Farley, 2013, p. 9). It was earlier discussed that putting a juvenile sex offender in school can help reduce recidivism rates. If a common trait among juvenile sex offenders is academic dysfunction, helping them improve their academic performance could provide them a means of improving on their own and creating more options and a better environment for themselves. A study observing the traits of male adolescents with sex offences showed marked negative behavior within certain environments, developing psychopathy traits. "These data indicate that most psychopathy traits and antisocial behavior are similar in all sexual offenders, while maternal dysfunction and narcissistic traits distinguish them from non-sex delinquents" (Netland & Miner, 2012, p. 4).

The next section will examine criminological theories. Criminological theories are used to understand the mechanisms behind juvenile delinquency and recidivism.

Criminological Theories

Criminological theories focus on why individuals behave a certain way in specific situations and why they commit crimes. By understanding the why behind the actions, strategies to control the crime can be developed as well as rehabilitate the criminal. There are various theories in criminology. Some of them focus on places, others focus on neighborhoods. One study focused on the importance of neighborhoods as both a protective and risk factor. "...biggest obstacles for youth to overcome concerns their ability to desist from further antisocial behavior. Although an emerging body of research documented important risk and protective factors associated with desistance, the importance of the neighborhoods which they reside has been understudied" (Wright, Kim, Chassin, Losoya, & Piquero, 2014, p. 1781).

The 2014 study explains impoverished neighborhoods have a significant impact on the choices juveniles make in their lives. For example, goal blockage is seen frequently in disadvantaged neighborhoods. Goal blocking is when there is a perceived barrier to the goal making it unreachable. When youth feel they have little options, they will do what they believe is their only chance at achieving something they desire. For those in impoverished neighborhoods it usually money, a feeling of belonging, and material possessions.

Results show that concentrated disadvantage is indirectly associated with youth reoffending primarily through its association with exposure to deviant peers. Considering youth mobility during the study period produced an additional indirect pathway by which concentrated disadvantage is associated with goal blockage (i.e., the gap between belief in conventional goals and perceived potential to reach those goals), which was then associated with exposure to deviant peers and indirectly, reoffending behavior (Wright, Kim, Chassin, Losoya, & Piquero, 2014, p. 1781). Comment by Max Dugan: Were you a member of the team?

A 2015 article mentions the importance of place rather than focusing on the role neighborhoods play in crime and recidivism. "Criminologists and crime prevention practitioners are increasingly aware of the importance of places of crime. A place is a very small area, usually a street corner, address, building, or street segment. A focus on crime places contrasts with focus on neighborhoods" (Eck & Weisburg, 2015, p. 1). Certain places like street corners are hubs for illegal activities like drug dealing and meet ups. Even buildings or apartments can be used to hold people captive or perform illegal drug operations.

Places are thought of as being part of the core understanding of the causes of recidivism. Although the focus should not be entirely on place, it is important to use place as a means of research and data collection. This can lead to further exploration of the concept and advances in understanding juvenile offender behavior. Place theories are logical subset of neighborhood theories and therefore integral for further analysis of juvenile recidivism. Comment by Max Dugan: Sounds like they are a logical subset of the neighborhood

While neighborhood theories are important to enable better understanding of what factors lead to juvenile offending and recidivism, it is also important to note the significance of place. "Neighborhood theories usually highlight the development of offenders. while place level explanations emphasize crime events. Three perspectives suggest the importance of places for understanding crime: rational choice; routine activity theory; and crime pattern theory" (Eck & Weisburg, 2015, p. 1). The article suggests understanding the importance of place opens up the door to understanding several theories such as crime pattern theory and routine activity theory along with rational choice. Crimes occur in places. By discovering what type of places promote criminal activity and recidivism, it may help reduce the rate of criminal offense and recidivism. Comment by Max Dugan: Theories?

Crime pattern theory for example, implies crime is not random. Crime can be labeled as either opportunistic or planned. Crime pattern theory allows for crime prevention theory to formulate a basis from which to determine what factors such as place, can be identified. The article continued to expand on place as an important marker for juvenile offending. What it misses however, is the positive impact places can have on juvenile offenders. Places can have a negative or positive effect on youth and can decrease or increase rates of offending and recidivism.

A 2012 article examines self-control and its part in increasing risk of people engaging in substance abuse. "Victims with low self-control are more likely to engage in substance use post-victimization, and low self-control and substance use are found to exert significant conditional effects on the pathway between victimization and offending" (Turanovic & Pratt, 2012, p. 321). As was seen in the previous section, many victims of sexual abuse become sexual abusers themselves. This is not to say all people that are victims become perpetrators, but it can help shed light into why victims sometimes take the role of perpetrator and commit crimes. Comment by Max Dugan: Not to say all people...

The article continues by adding self-control and general strain theories can be used to explain the relationship and dynamic between victimization and offending. "The causal pathway between victimization and offending can be explained by drawing upon key concepts drawn from self-control and general strain theories, indicating these two perspectives can and should be integrated explicitly to explain the dynamics of victimization and offending" (Turanovic & Pratt, 2012, p. 321). Self-control goes back to impulsivity. Greater impulsivity has been shown to lead to a higher risk of committing a crime and higher rates of recidivism.

General strain theory, a theory developed by Robert Agnew, has numerous empirical studies supporting its existing framework. There are three categories of strains in general strain theory. The first is the inability to accomplish positively valued objectives. The second is the threat to remove/removal of positively valued stimuli. The third is presenting a threat one with negatively value/noxious stimuli. General strain theory is used to explain the higher crime rates of males versus females. For example, females lean more towards self-destructive behavior and depression than males. Males lean more towards property and violent crime, moral outrage, and anger (Turanovic & Pratt, 2012).

In conclusion, this literature review showed the various theories, factors, and causes that exist in juvenile offending and recidivism. From effects neighborhoods have on juvenile offenders to places where crimes take place, to victims becoming offenders, the transition from a non-delinquent to a juvenile offender can be riddled with bad influences and bad choices. If anything is to be done to decrease juvenile offending and recidivism rates, strategies must be aimed at helping juveniles deal with these obstacles.

Discussion

Juvenile recidivism is a problem the criminal justice system has tried to improve for years. Research shows rehabilitative efforts decrease recidivism rates while punitive measure increase recidivism rates. This is why policies are changing to provide less punitive measures and more rehabilitative efforts in hopes of reducing significantly juvenile recidivism rates. There are several recommendations available that call for a reduction of supervision for those at low risk of offending and an increase in support of alternatives that prepare the juvenile offender to deal with their lives and the negative influences that may exist in their environment. These recommendations are meant to guide implementation of change in a way that is realistic and also allows for exploration of other options.

The first recommendation concerns supervision. By minimizing supervision within the juvenile justice system for juvenile offenders at low risk of recidivism, this allows important resources to be diverted to juvenile offenders with a high risk of reoffending. Supervision is not necessary at this level and just creates a potentially stressful environment for juvenile offenders in the low-risk group. Comment by Max Dugan: An example of who falls in this category would be helpful.

A 2013 quantitative study using Cox regression models and bivariate analysis demonstrated low-risk offenders as less likely to reoffend. "A number of bivariate analyses and Cox regression models provided preliminary support for the ability of the nonviolent delinquency SRR, and modest support for the violence SRR, to predict probation outcomes" (Daly, Bouhours, Broadhurst, & Loh, 2013, p. 241). Low-risk offenders are those with no prior offense history and those with no sexual offense history. Juvenile offenders in this population are less likely to re-offend, especially concerning sexual crimes.

The next recommendation is meant to maximize the value and impact of system resources through prioritization of services for youth that demonstrate high risk of recidivism. This can be through minimization of punitive measures such as confinement and maximization of rehabilitative measures like counseling and programs. Removal of unnecessary services allows for maximum use of necessary services. While it takes time to properly assess which services are necessary and unnecessary, research suggests counseling and skill building programs are the most successful at reducing juvenile recidivism.

The third recommendation falls into assessment in order to evaluate the main causes of juvenile offender's delinquent behaviors and concentrating system resources on addressing these causes. Mental health problems seem to be a main cause for juvenile offending. By evaluating which mental health problems are most common among juvenile offenders and focusing counseling efforts towards assisting youth with these mental health problems, it can help resolve the main cause for certain youth recidivism. Youth recidivism has many causes, however, understanding these causes can only come from research and assessment.

Recommendation four is about using validated, specialized evaluations and screening in order to identify juvenile offenders with substance use treatment needs and mental health needs and match them to the kinds of services they need. Along with finding suitable services, reducing any unnecessary juvenile justice intervention.

The next set of recommendations try to follow the principle of adopting and effectively implementing services and programs shown to minimize recidivism as well as improve youth outcomes. The first recommendation is to eliminate practices and programs that are ineffective at reducing recidivism or improving other significant youth outcomes. Again, this goes towards maximizing what works and what does not work and using those funds to improve juvenile offender outcomes.

The second recommendation is funding and supporting services demonstrated to minimize recidivism and improve additional youth outcomes. Counseling services and skills-based programs require additional funding that can be made possible with the removal of ineffective programs and practices. By redistributing budget capital towards rehabilitative services, there will be a positive outcome towards reducing juvenile recidivism. So many programs and practices continue even when their outcomes prove they are ineffective. This is waste of resources and time.

The third recommendation is assessing recidivism rates and the influence rehabilitative services have on juvenile offender outcomes. After assessment, the information should be used to guide practice, resource allocation, and policy. While it is important to implement rehabilitative services, it also important to continually assess its effectiveness. Counseling services may be effective at one point and not as effective years later.

The fourth recommendation is employing a coordinate approach that will address juvenile offender needs across service systems. This can be done through partnering key service systems with the juvenile justice system in which juvenile offenders should be or are involved to evaluate and successfully address their needs.

Literature provides the basis from which to validate or invalidate recommendations. A 2012 study examined the validity of PACT as an instrument of measure for juvenile recidivism. "The validity of the Positive Achievement Change Tool (PACT) across gender/race/ethnicity in a juvenile sample was examined. Results demonstrate recidivism increases as PACT score increases, with minor exceptions" (Baglivio & Jackowski, 2012, p. 26). The researchers could link PACT scores with rates of recidivism. They made the correlation that high PACT scores meant higher rates of recidivism. PACT can be used to identify if practices and policies increase recidivism or decrease with high or low PACT scores signaling these changes. Comment by Max Dugan: Needs to be used the first time you use acronym.

"However, which factors predict recidivism across subgroups differ. Criminal history was the most prevalent predictor, while no factor predicted White female offending. "Gender-responsive" item inclusion measuring abusive/traumatic circumstances did not improve prediction" (Baglivio & Jackowski, 2012, p. 26).

Another study examined the kinds of mental health problems juvenile offenders have and the kinds of services that enabled lower recidivism among them. "Those with externalizing (disruptive behavior or substance use) disorder or substance offenses were most likely to receive service referrals. Substance disordered youths with service referrals had lower recidivism risk compared to counterparts without referrals" (Hoeve, Mcreynolds, & Wasserman, 2013, p. 379). Substance abuse is a hard problem to deal with, without professional help. Those that are identified to have such problems and are then given referral services to treatment centers and counseling gain the tools to help them avoid recidivism. That is because the potential cause of the recidivism, substance abuse, is controlled through the services gained from the referrals. Comment by Max Dugan: Any information on % of success increase if they receive this support vs. not?

One study provided percentages of recidivism. The researchers also offered the specific group within the population that would most likely reoffend due to higher scores for substance use/irritability.

Approximately 19.1% of youths had positive mental health screens, and 25.3% of all youths recidivated within 12 months after release. Of youths with positive screens, 29.2% saw a mental health clinician, 16.1% received behavioral health services during detention, and 30.0% received referrals for postdetention services. Survival analyses showed that being male, Black, and younger, and having higher scores on the substance use or irritability subscales of the screen predicted shorter time to recidivism. Receiving a behavior precaution, behavioral health services in detention, or an assessment in the community also predicted shorter time to recidivating (Aalsma et al., 2015, p. 1372).

Another study correlated service referrals with lower recidivism risk. "Substance disordered youths with service referrals had lower recidivism risk compared to counterparts without referrals; referral lowered the recidivism odds to approximately that for youths without a substance use disorder" (Hoeve, Mcreynolds, & Wasserman, 2014, p. 379). Thus showing positive rehabilitative efforts can reduce risk of juvenile recidivism.

In fact, referrals enabled lower rates of recidivism like the rates of youths that did not have substance abuse problems. "Referral lowered the recidivism odds to approximately that for youths without a substance use disorder. Providing juvenile justice youths with systematic mental health assessment and linking those with substance use disorder to mental health and substance use services likely reduces recidivism risk" (Hoeve, Mcreynolds, & Wasserman, 2013, p. 379). This article provides evidence that mental health services help reduce recidivism rates. It also shows that problems like substance abuse can be alleviated with mental health services in the form of referrals and treatment programs. Comment by Max Dugan: The sentence prior to this has the word "likely." Does that mean there is no academic proof available for support in studies?

Certain organizations have main objectives that include reducing recidivism like Crossover Youth Practice Model (CYPM) "Decreased recidivism is one of the primary outcomes targeted by the CYPM. Previous internal, exploratory research on recidivism indicates positive outcomes for CYPM youth" (Haight, Bidwell, Choi, & Cho, 2016, p. 78). CYPM aims to reduce recidivism through research and initiatives that involve understanding the causes behind recidivism. Their actions have led to an overall improved outcome for the youth that receive their services. "Participants also experienced implementation challenges including inadequate support and training of front line workers, distinguishing core features of the multifaceted model, and some issues in engaging families and key community stakeholders" (Haight, Bidwell, Marshall, & Khatiwoda, 2014, p. 91). Comment by Max Dugan: Any reference with data to support the "overall improved outcome"?

The authors note that through the organizations efforts to research and then implement the information they gathered into practice and policy, the youth within the programs and services they offered, demonstrated lowered rates of recidivism. "Youth receiving CYPM services were less likely to recidivate than propensity score matched youth receiving "services as usual" even when controlling for location, time and other key covariates" (Haight, Bidwell, Choi, & Cho, 2016, p. 78). The positive results continue to support the need to research and implement collected information to form effective policy and practices that reduce juvenile recidivism. Assessment also goes hand in hand with research and couples well with data collection from ongoing practices and policies.