Political Science Comparison of Leadership

Political Science

Comparison of Leadership Styles and Philosophies

Politics and social history are dominated by the views of those who shape movements and events. These views include not only the basic assumptions of leaders in regard to ideas of human and civil rights, religious values and beliefs, and thoughts on right conduct and appropriate moral behavior, but also the attitudes of those leaders toward how such goals should be attained.

Some leaders espouse only the most peaceful of paths, while others advocate violence. For still others, the pragmatic offers the only solution - they hold in contempt those who cling to high ideals at all costs. Leadership can be gained in numerous ways. It is earned and it is inherited. It is acknowledged only after long struggles, or it is easily won. A leader can appear who guides only his co-religionists, or who frees an entire people or race. Leaders may be heads of governments, or those who strive to oppose those same institutions of coercive control. Indeed, instead of paving a new path, a leader may actually typify, even embody, the ideals of his or her time and place, providing an example that is emulated down through the generations. Certainly one of the primary qualities of a leader is that individual's ability to serve as an exemplar of a set of ideals. These ideals inspire followers, and encourage further action, much of which might require great personal courage and sacrifice. Yet, not all leadership requires a loss of the advantages of one's original standing in society. While almost inevitably adding to her or his stature, the natural leader may be build upon an already high social rank, using that great advantage. Miyamoto Musashi, Queen Elizabeth, Jack Welch, Confucius, Niccolo Machiavelli, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Mohandas K. Gandhi, and Dr. Martin Luther king, Jr. are all great leaders, their actions and ideas inspiring human beings in different places and times, and still attracting new admirers and believers in their special talents and goals.

Miyamoto Musashi is an excellent example of the leader as lone hero. Musashi, one of the greatest swordsmen and martial artists of Japanese history, gave to posterity his Book of Five Rings, in which he described his tactics, technique, and martial strategy. An expert with the samurai sword and a truncheon-like, spiked weapon called the jitte, he traveled across Japan engaging his rivals and adversaries in bold feats of combat, always alone, and always outdoing his opponents in skill and cleverness. A follower of Zen Buddhism, as well as a master of the sword, Musashi, demonstrated that one's state of mind was as, if not more, important than one's kill with the blade. The Book of Five Rings stands as a testament to his ability to understand the inner psychology of combat, and of striving in al one's endeavors:

In the science of martial arts, the state of mind should remain the same as normal.

In ordinary circumstances as well as when practicing martial arts, let there be no change at all -- with the mind open and direct, neither tense nor lax, centering the mind so that there is no imbalance, calmly relax your mind, and savor this moment of ease thoroughly so that the relaxation does not stop its relaxation for even an instant.

(Hanh, 2000, p. 128)

Musashi's philosophy and lifestyle were well in tune with the Japan of his day, and continue to serve as inspirations to those who admire the values of traditional Japanese culture. Traditional Japan was a world in which loyalty, devotion to duty, perseverance, and integrity were highly prized. Musashi showed how, by understanding one's own inner being, and being in tune with the outer world - including the far greater world of the spirit - one could accomplish monumental things for oneself and one's people.

At the opposite end of the spectrum, Queen Elizabeth of England was not a lone woman who became a model for her people, but the actual ruler of those people. Ascending the English throne at time of great change, and reigning through a period of great crisis, she demonstrated qualities of leadership that are still valued today. The Virgin Queen faced both serious problems at home and dire threats from abroad. On the domestic front, tensions simmered between the newly Protestant state and those who wishes to continue to follow unmolested their ancient Catholic faith. From without, came the onslaught of King Phillip of Spain's armada. Spain was the most powerful nation of the day, and its mighty fleet threatened to crush England and her independence. The Queen faced an immense personal challenge as a woman in a man's world - a test of strength and resourcefulness that particularly inspires many today. She needed to demonstrate that she could show the same determination and valor as a king. Elizabeth took seriously her responsibilities to her people. As God's chosen instrument, she believed it was her duty to keep her people safe and, if necessary, to give her life for them. In a powerful speech, given just after the spectacular victory over the Spanish Armada, she proclaimed, have always believed myself that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good will of my subjects; and therefore am come amongst you, as you see, at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live or die amongst you all, and to lay down for God, for my kingdom and for my people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust. (Bassnett, 1988, p. 73)

Elizabeth's address paints the image of the ideal ruler, as still imagined by many today. As Queen, Elizabeth cultivated the virtues of selflessness, courage, and steadfastness. At the present time, heads of state and politicians continue to speak of themselves as concerned only with the welfare of their people. Even more, Elizabeth transcended the limitations imposed by society on women. She proved herself the equal - the superior - of the men who surrounded, and so is remembered as England's greatest monarch.

In contrast, Jack Welch, American industrialist, represents an entirely different kind of hero. His skill was not as leader of a people, but as someone who inspired a people. Chief Executive Officer of General Electric from 1981 to 2001, Welch demonstrated a genius for modern business. Joining the company's Plastics Division, immediately after receiving his PhD in Chemical Engineering from the University of Illinois in 1960, he rose through the ranks based on his marvelous abilities (Strohmeier, 1998, p. 16). GE's youngest ever CEO, Welch made judicious use of his apprenticeship in the Plastics Division, reveling in its "freewheeling atmosphere," using his experiences to hone his skills as the quintessential American entrepreneur (Strohmeier, 1998, p. 16). As CEO, Welch began a trend that was soon followed by many other major corporations. It was this philosophy of continuous "restructuring" that made it possible for General Electric to seemingly endlessly adapt to changing conditions (Strohmeier, 1998, p. 16).

Welch put for his management philosophy on his very first day as CEO, stating that, decade from now we would like General Electric to be perceived as a unique, high-spirited, entrepreneurial enterprise... A company known around the world for its unmatched level of excellence. We want General Electric to be the MOST PROFITABLE, HIGHLY DIVERSIFIED COMPANY on EARTH, with world-quality leadership in every one of its product lines. (Strohmeier, 1998, p. 16)

Jack Welch commands respect because he speaks to deeply-held American tradition of self-reliance and a "can-do" spirit of pioneering discovery and adaptation. Whether true or not, these American myths of rags to riches success, the importance of education, hard work, and inborn talent, remain powerful motivators. The former GE CEO calls to mind the best in American ingenuity and business genius. He stands above the rest both because of what he achieved at such a young age - he was only 45 when he assumed the helm of the company - and because he made his corporation highly competitive and extremely profitable in a time of rapid change and vastly increased global competition. Welch's story is the Horatio Alger tale re-written for the contemporary world, a narrative for all those seeking market success in an era of high technology and globalization.

Far removed from the world of money was another great leader who lived in Ancient China. Confucius, too, had to contend with the strife of changing times. Born at a time when his country was divided into numerous warring states, he sought the means by which people his people might be brought back together, and so create a harmonious and ethical society. Confucius was concerned above all with the relationships of different individuals and classes, one to another, each symbolizing in some way fundamental concepts about the nature of the universe, and the place of each of us within it. Hierarchically arranged, when all were put into practice they reflected and sustained a perfect cosmos:

In terms of their separate functions, the closeness between father and son is based on humanheartedness; the righteous relation between ruler and subjects is based on righteousness; the hierarchy of the old and young is based on propriety; the difference between husband and wife is based on intelligence; the trust between friends is based on trustworthiness. (Ng, 1994, p. 93)

The philosophy of Confucius was based essentially on that of human relationships expanded to the sphere of the state, and even beyond into the cosmos. Right conduct and proper action among individuals and groups would result in an ordered universe, one that operated according to the proper laws. By cultivating these believes and following these rules one could hope to produce a society that was perfectly ordered and self-perpetuating. The Confucian ideal of leadership has endured today among many, not only in China, but in many parts of East Asia, and has even attracted followers in the West, for it addresses the issue of responsibility as a metaphor for virtue and harmony.

Far less idealistic were the ideas of the Renaissance thinker, Niccolo Machiavelli. Machiavelli lived in Italy at a time when its various princes were contending for power. The region was riven by war and consumed by bloodshed. In his seminal work, the Prince, Machiavelli advocated a hard-nosed realism in the realms of politics and diplomatic relations. Whatever was most expedient was best for the state, the need for order and stability taken precedence over virtually all else. Machiavelli's text was a primer for political realists, an exhortation to bold and energetic ruler to take control no matter the cost in human lives and suffering, for in the end it would worth it. Speaking of how an Ancient Greek ruler, Agathocles, was able to maintain the peace and security of his state despite so many "betrayals and cruelties," Machiavelli discourses upon the use of harsh measures as a means of control:

believe that this depends on whether cruelty be well or badly used. Well used are those cruelties (if it is permitted to speak well of evil) that are carried out in a single stroke, done out of necessity to protect oneself, and are not continued but are instead converted into the greatest possible benefits for the subjects. Badly used are those cruelties which, although being few at the outset, grow with the passing of time instead of disappearing.

(Machiavelli, 1998, p. 32)

It was not that Machiavelli was advocating cruelty for cruelty's sake, but rather that he was saying that, sometimes, cruelty is necessary. The lesson of expediency is one that all leaders must learn as it is a necessary aspect of statecraft. One controls the masses through force as well as through gentler forms of persuasion. Down to the present day, others, as well, have seen the need for the Italian philosopher's realpolitik.

The constitution of the ideal state and society was a concern also of the Swiss-born philosophe, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. His style of leadership was quite different from those of the preceding, his emphasis being not on the idea of s ingle leader, but on a concept of the "General Will" as the guiding principle behind society. In Rousseau's works, such as the Confessions, the state is in effect replaced by a general consensus within society at large. The General Will is an amorphous force that directs the actions and thoughts of every member of the group. In Rousseau's mind, society is conceived of as a group. The individual is of little account, it being incumbent upon the larger society to impose its will on individual men and women if their conduct or beliefs is in any way at odds with the general ethos as represented by his General Will. There is no defining this General Will, it simply exists, and exercises its inexorable, and unchallengeable control. His idea constitutes a surrender to "natural law," a belief that this all-controlling natural will represents a return to a kind of primordial state of grace, that if adhered to will make life better for all, even if it costs certain individuals their freedom, or in the worst cases, even their lives:

All the first impulses of nature are good and straight. They move as directly as possible towards our preservation and happiness; yet, soon lacking the strength to pursue their initial direction through so much resistance, they allow themselves to be deflected by a thousand obstacles, which turn them away from the true goal and send them along oblique paths where man forgets his original destination.

(Vernes, 2006)

Rousseau's beliefs seem particularly to shape many modern political movements, including many of the programs of politicians in America, Europe, and even such nations as China that do not otherwise appear to be western-style democracies. The goal is always the importance of the group - and its needs - over the individual. One need only look at campaigns against obesity, and the like to see the continued appeal of Rousseau - the individual has no rights if those rights in any way prejudice the well-being of the collective.