Leadership Styles Among Male and Female Principal and How Teachers Rate Their Principals

Leadership Styles Among Male and Female Principal

It is the intention of this research to study the leadership and cognitive styles of teachers and instructors of both genders within the educational system and their preference for types of leadership in a principal of that institution.

The research will include teachers and educators from all levels of the educational system from grade school to high school. The study will also include teachers and instructors from all major academic fields of study offered in public and private schools. The studies conducted thus far in the educational arena indicate that teachers are equally inclined towards different cognitive styles.

Teachers prefer a mix of idealist, analytical and realistic cognitive styles of leadership in their Principals. Studies have also indicated that teachers prefer that principals are people oriented and task oriented in their approach to running the school or institution. In addition, teachers also prefer that the Principal be a personable individual who can be approached when a teacher is facing difficult situations. In most cases, demographic characteristics with regards to gender, ethic origins and education level do not change the teacher's cognitive style preferences. Finally, are the leadership styles displayed by both genders different? And what type of leadership style: transactional (incremental) or transformational (discontinuous) do principals of schools display?

Knowing and understanding the various factors affecting the leadership style used by the Principal and the interaction between the teachers and the Principal can help the school operate in an efficient and organized manner in accomplishing its mission of imparting education to impressionable students who are the future.

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

The aim of this introductory chapter is to give the reader an overview of the leadership styles and the prevailing trends in leadership in the educational field. The cognitive styles that affect leadership in schools and institutes of learning will be evaluated in this study. Relationship between teachers and principals who are the main authorities in the schools will also be investigated. In addition, the purpose and objective of the study mentioned in the Abstract will also be discussed with respect to its significance to the study of the institution of education as a whole. This study will end with a summary of the topic discussed in the chapters.

1.1 Background of Leadership and the Educational System

Man has always thirsted for education and self-improvement. The ability to think and to reason distinguishes man as superior to other species. From the Greeks to the Romans in Europe, to the Chinese and the Indians in the Asian subcontinent, and to the American Indian tribes of North America and the Mayans from South America, all civilizations have displayed formal or informal educational structures that were the building blocks of their respective societies. Over time, many of these societies moved from an informal style of education to a more formal and generalized format over the period of the existence of any civilization.

Teachers, scholars and educators were always offered and given the respect due their higher education and knowledge. Before formalized education, individuals who were skilled in arts, sciences or crafts took in apprentices whom they personally trained and supervised till they felt that the apprentice had acquired all the knowledge that this "educator" could provide. If the student felt the need for additional education, he or she then moved on to another teacher for training in another field.

Formalized education arose when a group of skilled and knowledgeable individuals gathered together under one roof to provide knowledge to students. It was also determined that students, unlike their counterparts in days gone by, had to be provided with a well rounded curriculum to enable them to successfully gain knowledge which would enable to obtain gainful employment. Currently, in schools, teachers bear the heavy responsibility of educating and developing the young and preparing them mentally and socially to become successful, contributing members of society. It is a challenging job. It goes beyond just imparting knowledge. Teachers have to provide more than just book-education; their personal opinions and behaviors make a great impact of impressionable and young minds.

How teachers conduct themselves and behave both with their colleagues and the Principal of the school make a big impact on how their students view them. New situations and problems are diverse. These evolve and change constantly which every class and generation. In addition to being adaptable, the manner in which a teacher can react and deal with these diversities is paramount for the welfare of students.

1.2 Statement of the problem of different Leadership styles

All individuals are different. They react to situations differently. Every individual has different cognitive styles. These depend on upbringing, background, the society from which the individual comes and personal opinions and styles. A study conducted by Ralph Stogdill (Stogdill, 1948) in 1948 indicated that the traits by themselves do not define a leader, and leadership patterns differed depending on situation. For example, the leadership qualities required by a military officer will differ from those required by a school principal.

Leaders can influence both good and bad behaviors in their followers. Winston Churchill and George Washington were great leaders. Both helped their respective countries during periods of great trials and difficulties. (Martin and Romano, 1992)

Schools are social, intellectual and cultural meeting-grounds for both students and teachers. After parents, teachers often are the first major influence to which a child is exposed. Just like any other business organization, schools also have their own organizational structure. Within the school setting the Principal is the leader, followed by the Vice-Principal. Various department heads report either directly to the Principal or the Vice Principal. For each department in the school, the teachers in that department are accountable to the department head. The department head in turn is accountable to the Vice Principal and then the Principal. To make a school effective, a principal has to constantly get his staff to work with him. In the course of mobilizing his staff to achieve the goals set for the school, he has to exercises leadership.

Fred Fiedler was the first to infer the connection between an individuals cognitive styles and the preference of leadership styles. (Fiedler, 1967) An individual will chose a leadership style -- consciously or unconsciously -- that closely reflects an individuals' general cognitive style. A leader is also more effective if his followers also have a cognitive style that matches the leader's cognitive style. According to Fiedler, the leader communicates with the group and can affect group performance by both verbal and non-verbal behavior (facial expression, body language and use of gestures). Fiedler presents the classic view that behavior (of both the leader and the followers) arises from an interaction between personality (needs, motives, drives) and the situation (environment). His research hinges upon (1) an assessment of the leader's motivational structure (for example, what goals are most important to him or her), and (2) An assessment of how favorable the "situation" is to achieving those goals.

Cognitions are defined as "any knowledge, opinion, or belief about the environment, about oneself, or about one's behavior." Cognitions can either be consonant cognitions or dissonant cognitions. Dissonant cognition creates an uncomfortable feeling and forces the individual feeling the cognition to try and change the situation. The act of making a choice creates dissonance. When a discrepancy exists between behavior and belief -- dissonance arises.

In a school, both consonant cognitions and dissonance cognition is required among the teaching staff and the Principal. Dissonance cognition motivates teachers to try new and innovative teaching styles to improve the transfer of knowledge to the students. At the same time, consonant dissonance is required in the dealing with the Principal in order to ensure that personal conflicts between two adults in the school do not affect the school.

1.3 Purpose of the study

Men and women also display different types of leadership styles. While no specific style is better than other styles, there are advantages and disadvantages to gender-based leadership styles. This study will investigate, in depth, the different factors affecting leadership styles within (and between) sexes and evaluate their impact on the school as a whole. The study will also examine cognitive style and the leadership styles that teachers prefer in a principal.

In addition, the study will identify if:

i) There are any differences in teachers' preference for a) The five cognitive styles.

(b) The leadership styles -- transformational and transactional.

A ii) There are any differences in cognitive styles:

a) Between male and female teachers.

A iii) There are different management styles among male and female principals

1.4 Definition of Terms

1.4.1 The Five Cognitive Styles

This study examines how individuals react to data, assess problems and identify alternatives. The five thinking styles identified by (A. F. Harrison and Bramson, 1982) are defined below:

a) The Synthesist

The synthesist style focuses on essential factors, underlying assumptions and abstract concepts. Synthesists are identified as integrators. Individuals with this style like to identify two or more entities that appear to have little or no relation to each other and try and find ways to combine them into new and creative entities. Synthesists do not generally look for compromises, consensus or agreement on the best solution to a problem or situation. They will however look for a solution that will connect and assimilate the random and contradictory views to arrive at a best-fit solution.

A b) The Idealist

The idealist style focuses on process, values and aspirations. Idealists are people who like to take a broad view of things. They also tend to be future-oriented and to think about goals and missions to be accomplished. Idealists are much attuned to the needs of others and for the betterment of society as a whole. They will evaluate the impact of any personal decision on the society. They respect and believe in the social values and morals dictated by the society they live in. Their thought processes are receptive. They entertain and review alternative ideas and suggestions that may differ from their own. They will try and achieve a middle ground so that all individuals involved in the problem and the final solution feel satisfied.

The Pragmatist:

The pragmatist style looks for immediate payoffs and tends to use incremental thinking. They verify what is true or false in terms of immediate personal experience. Individuals who posses this type of thinking are not very consistent and predictable with their decisions. They tend to experiment and look for other options and avenues and do not feel the need to conform to the traditional values that society may impose on the problem. They tend to make decisions one at a time depending on the order in which the decisions have to be made and their sole objective very often is to accomplish the task in the least possible time and in the fastest process available.

A d) The Analyst

The analyst style considers method and plans, seeks predictability through ordering data and attends to concrete details. Analysts approach problems in a careful, logical, methodical way, paying great attention to details. They always collect all data and plan any process before actually venturing into the activity. They will seek and evaluate other options to find the best one to solve any dilemma. They generally form firm opinions and values based on the data collected and tend to analyze and judge all situations. An individual with an analyst thought process will look for methods or a very logical approaches or procedures to perform any task at hand.

A e) The Realist

The realist style points to realities and resources, and considers variability and immediately comprehensible facts. Realists are empiricists, i.e., what is "real" to them is what can be felt, smelled, touched, seen, heard, personally observed or experienced. The realist's thought processes have a corrective quality.

They will strive to change or correct any process or situation that they personally feel is not correct. They tend to observe all situations as either the right way or the wrong way and find it very difficult to arrive at a middle ground in any situation.

1.4.2 The Two types of Leadership

Leaders typically display two types of leadership styles in their dealing. The style followed generally depends on a combination of five variables -- the leader, the follower, the time, the place and the circumstances. Men and women describe their leadership performance as either "transactional" or "transformational." Both styles of leadership are defined below:

a) Transactional Leadership

An individual who displays leadership by viewing job performance as a series of transactions with subordinates uses the "transactional" form of leadership. In this style rewards for exemplary performances or punishments for inadequate performances is used in the dealing with subordinates. A power status and influence rest in the hands of the leader and personal discretion is often the only restraining factor. This style of leadership leaves no room for middle ground and often rates the followers on individual discrete performances rather than a total overall performance. This style of leadership is very common among men, who are indoctrinated about the importance of power and authority.

They generally use formal authority in their dealings with their followers at all times.

A b) Transformational Leadership:

Individuals who lead by encouraging participation and interest among their subordinates lead using the transformational style of leadership. Leaders using this style will try and convince their followers that they need to work together to obtain their final goals. The leader will try and change the individual's opinion and interest if contradictory as compared to the others in the group using personal characteristics such as interpersonal skills, charisma and personal interactions. Very rarely will these types of leaders use their position in the organizational hierarchy to lead their subordinates. Women generally prefer this style of leadership. This style however requires the leader to have very good interpersonal skills and charisma. The followers also have to believe that the leader truly cares for their well being and success in order for them to be lead by the leader using this style.

1.4.3. Trait Approach to Leadership

House and Baetz defined "trait" as a distinctive physical or psychological characteristic of an individual to which her or his behavior may be attributed. (Klenke, 1996) The three traits identified with relation to leaders are;

a) Physical traits -- height, weight, energy and appearance. Leaders generally display higher energy levels as compared to the individuals that they lead. It is also generally observed that leaders have good physical appearances with relation to height and weight. Depending on the different cultures around the world, leaders' appearances vary. Appearances however, do not always have to be based on conventional standards. Good grooming and presentation also make a big impact on the followers.

A b) Mental abilities -- intelligence and aptitude level. Leaders have always been able to display mental abilities that were superior to others. Possessing high analytical and logical skills and aptitudes have helped leaders make decisions and formulate plans that helped them become leaders.

Personality traits -- aggressiveness, self-confidence, emotional control. Leaders generally are very self-confident and have a high level of determination in pursuing a goal.

1.4.4. The Leadership Styles Preferred

In this study, leadership style is taken to mean a particular behavior emphasized by the leader to motivate his or her group to accomplish eventual ends (Hanson, 1979). There are many models of leadership style. But as will be seen in the subsequent literature review, most types of leadership styles elucidated are based on two broad dimensions: people-oriented and task-oriented. These styles are defined as:

a) People-Oriented Style

The people-oriented style emphasizes the human aspects and is more concerned with interpersonal relationships. Leaders who are people-oriented have strong concern for the human relations approach and try to maintain friendly supportive relations with their followers. They are expressive and tend to establish social and emotional ties. They open up channels of communication and delegate to give subordinates opportunities to use their potential. They view people as the best asset the organization, schools and society may have and constanly work towards developing this asset. (Hersey and Blanchard, 1974) b) Task-Oriented Style

The task-oriented style emphasizes the technical or task aspects of the job and is concerned mainly with the accomplishment of tasks. Leaders who are task-oriented have strong concern for the group's goals and the means to achieve the goals. Their behaviors reflect their interest in completing assignments and getting the work done. They concentrate on methods for assigning and organizing work, making decisions, and evaluating performance. These types of leaders may not always demonstrate concern and look for the success and individual development of others if this is not always tied in with the task at hand.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study seeks to gain insight into teachers' preferences for the different cognitive styles and leadership styles and to see if there is any relationship between gender and cognitive styles and leadership styles. There is a significant relationship between teachers' cognitive style and their preferred leadership styles. If principals recognize the best style that can be used to motivate both male and female teachers in the school, he (or she) can get the teachers to work at their optimum level. The study will examine the literature on gender and its relationship to leadership from a number of disciplinary perspectives -- communications, political science, psychology, and sociology. Leadership is studied in the linkages between structure and culture; it is here that values and institutions crucially intersect. The impact of leadership within various social institutions and across cultural, structural, and individual levels of interaction is examined.

CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Leadership qualities:

There is a constant debate: "Are leaders born or are leader made?" Leadership skills can be developed -- the qualities required in a leader can be learned. Bernard M. Bass states "Leadership is one of the world's oldest preoccupations." (Wren, 1995) When individuals know and understand both their strengths and their weakness their effectiveness as leaders is greater. The leadership quality most desired is the ability to have a vision and a dream. No leader will have followers if the followers do not believe in the leader's mission. Strong leaders have a helpful and thoughtful personality. They are also very aware of their own strengths and weakness. The key to success in a career, and consequently in life, is to set attainable goals and work towards attaining these goals. Disciple and dedication is a necessity. A good leader knows how to generate enthusiasm and positive thinking within him or her self and how to broadcast it.

Napoleon Hill the author of "Think and Grow Rich" states: "The most powerful instrument we have in our hand is the power of our mind." Mr. Hill further elaborated that man can create nothing if he does not have first conceive it as a thought. Thoughts can be incredibly powerful! If an individual cannot believe that he or she can succeed they will most likely not succeed in achieving their set goals. The individual should however, have realistic goals and ambitions that can be attained; though it may take effort and determination. The ability to recognize, relate, assimilate and apply principals to achieve any goal whatsoever that doesn't violate the Universal Law -- the Law of God and the rights of fellowman is acceptable. Honesty and integrity is also important and should be pursued in all ventures undertaken. (Hill, 2001) Common courtesies, like being polite, decent and having good manners can help a leader set an example for the rest of the team or group to follow. A leader should have character, integrity and the ability to uphold the beliefs he or she has and the organization or institute that they are a part of. The goals that a leader sets for both self and the followers should be clearly understood by everyone involved in the endeavor. Finding a purpose and direction for the organization that the leader is at the helm of, getting the labor and expertise that matches a job requirement, motivating the employees, leading with self disciple are just a few of the areas where a good leader can lead an organization.

Change is normal and the one certainty of life. How an individual relates to change determine the success that an individual can achieve. (Mukherjee and Mukherjee, 2001) Great decisions are determined by how the leader, directing the company, made a decision with respect to a change in the environment affecting the organization or company. Fallbacks -- whenever necessary -- should be used as a time to step back and review the plans and goals of the organization. Often a leader may lose perspective due to the constant contact with the situation at hand; it helps to step back and evaluate the situation and look at the entire overall picture.

Leadership qualities required of principals in schools is not any different than that required for corporate and business leaders. The Principal however, shoulders more responsibility to act with honesty and integrity in all his dealings as he or she is often held up to a higher moral and ethical standard. Younger students need a good role model. Although they may not have all the cognitive understanding that comes with age and maturity, they do understand right from wrong at the most basic level. Teachers and principals have to maintain a good working relationship between them if they want to promote higher levels of education and stability in a school. Too many conflicts between teachers and principals result in the students suffering both educationally and socially.

2.1 The Cognitive Aspect in Leadership

The act of making a choice creates dissonance. When a discrepancy exists between behavior and belief -- dissonance exists. Dissonant feelings, depending on their intensity, can make an individual feel varying levels of pressure to change the factors creating the dissonance. In most cases, a physiological arousal motivates a person to change an attitude and/or behavior in the presence of dissonance. Epictetus believed that, "People are disturbed not by things, but by their perception of things." (Kemerling, 2002) Although people often see others through a distorted lens, clouded by the individual's wishes, needs, and experience -- people do change their opinions over time. If human misperception of others leads to conflict, the result will be either corrected perceptions or the striking of a balance enabling both parties to accommodate to the viewpoints that produced the conflict.

2.1.1 An Overview on Cognitive Styles

Personality development, research and analyses have become increasingly important in the work place and in society. Cognitive psychologists refer to information-processing habits representing people's dominant or preferred modes of perceiving, thinking, remembering and problem solving as "Cognitive Style" (Globerson and Zelnicker, 1989) Cognitive style includes things that involve mental activity. Cognitive psychologists look at it from the perceptual point-of-view. Social scientists however, look at it as the way people react to problems and to each other. While tremendous information can be obtained by using the cognitive styles and a lot of applications are currently used for the cognitive style of management, a lot of the research is still in the process of being developed.

2.1.1. a. Perceptual point-of-view from the Cognitive psychologists:

Psychologists maintain that perceptual, cognitive, personality and social interactions all are affected by the same set of processes that determine how a person approaches the world (StartPG.com, 1970) The OCI identifies 12 cultural norms in a circular graph pattern: Self-actualization (12 o'clock), Humanistic Actualization (1 o'clock), Affiliate (2 o'clock), Approval (3 o'clock), Conventional (4 o'clock), Dependent (5 o'clock), Avoidance (6 o'clock), Oppositional (7 o'clock), Power (8 o'clock), Competitive (9 o'clock), Perfectionist (10 o'clock) and Achievement (11 o'clock)

This wheel identifies that some people are perfectionist, whereas others will take life as it comes and are more concerned with the overall picture. Some people carefully inspect all the elements of a problem, work slowly and verify their answers before responding. Other individuals quickly scan the information at hand, arrive at a rapid solution and are less concerned about responding incorrectly. Psychologists have identified at least nine cognitive styles (Rebok, 1987). Two of the most extensively studied are described below. They are the field dependence- field independence and the reflective-impulsive styles. These styles are classified in dichotomous pairs.

Field dependent/Field Independent Style: When individuals are easily influenced and affected by subject material and surrounding contextual cues of the perceptual field, they are classified as "Field dependent individuals." These individuals can be encouraged or discouraged from a course of action very easily; they general defer to another opinion before undertaking any decision. If the person they approach offers the right advice they may make correct decisions. Otherwise they may make the wrong decision. They are like clay in the hand of the person dispensing advice. On the other hand, field independent people are able to function independently and can formulate their own ideas and objective without external help. They are more likely to arrive at a decision using their own judgment and past experiences and will rely more on themselves as the primary information source. The field-independent style is associated with a generally autonomous manner in interpersonal relationships, while field-dependent individuals are seen as more likely to rely on others, especially in ambiguous situations. (Galotti, 1994)

Reflective-Impulsive Styles: Reflective cognitive individuals will delay making a decision and charting a course of action until they evaluate and consider all the alternatives before arriving at a solution. These types of individuals also are very careful about both long-term and short-term consequences of their decisions. Individuals who are quick to respond before they consider all the alternatives and tend to make many careless errors are described as impulsive. Often, they are more interested at arriving at a decision and do not always investigate all the parameters that affect the problem.

2.1.1. b Personality Point-of-View from the Social Scientist:

These are derived from Jung's personality theory, four dichotomous pairs of cognitive styles. (Bridges, 1992):

The Sensing-Intuition Personality: Sensing personality types work well when they know and understand all the facts. They are generally consistent with their decision-making procedures and will evaluate all options before coming to any conclusion. They prefer following standardized methods for solving a problem and will be patient and precise in the execution of the tasks. Sensing personality never try and "rock the boat" and if change is needed they will examine all avenues before embarking on a course of action. The intuition-type personalities generally tend to "shoot from the hip" and make their decisions without evaluating all the facts. They are also not very consistent and show a resistance towards following procedures. They will try and look for other possibilities and methods -- which may not always be appropriate for the task at hand. Intuitive types can sometimes however, also get lucky in their effort of looking for new ways -- they may find new ways of doing things that no one else had though of before and enjoy the adventure of the entire process. (Berens and Nardi, 1999)

The Thinking-Feeling Personality: Individuals who display a keen logical and analytical decision-making process are classified as the thinking types. They do not overtly display any emotions and are not comfortable with dealing with emotional displays by others. They tend to try and either offer analytical and logical solutions to emotional problems faced by others or pretend that an emotional situation in another person's life does not exist. People with feeling personalities tend to base judgments on subjective values, are aware of others' feelings, are sympathetic and enjoy pleasing people. These individual use the "Humanistic-Encouraging" tactic to connect and relate to people around them. They may not always look very logically at the entire picture. They are however very people oriented and will look after their welfare.

The Perceiving-Judging Personality: Judging personalities are structured and plan in advance. They prefer a planned and orderly way of life. Their preference for structure is key to their outlook of the world. They get stressed if the process takes too much time. Judging is associated with the critical and often moralistic views of the world. Perceiving people are flexible and spontaneous. They tend to be uncomfortable with fixed patterns or structures, aim for pluralism and value the freedom to respond to impulse. The perceiving types are more interested in obtaining and weighing data rather than rendering decisions and they feel stressed if pushed to make a decision too quickly. (Sundstrom, Koenigs and Huet-Cox, 1996)

The Introverts-Extroverts Personality: Introverts relate more easily to the inner world of ideas than to people. True introverts are quiet, inwardly focused and reclusive. They prefer quiet for concentration, are careful in detailed work and tend to dislike sweeping statements. Extroverts relate more easily to the outer world of people, prefer variety and action and may be impatient or act quickly without thinking. Extroverts are gregarious, socially active and sensation seeking. An extrovert has "tendencies to prefer oral to written communication, action to reflection, interaction to concentration, and breadth of relationship to depth." (Wallace and Simpson, 1991)

In short, the four personality types can be classified as Extraversion/Introversion (ways people receive energy)

Sensing/Intuition (ways people take in information)

Thinking/Feeling (ways people make decisions)

Judging/Perceiving (ways people organize things)

The instrument for measuring this classification of cognitive styles is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (Myers, 1962). Four scales, Extroversion-Introversion (El), Sensing-Intuition (SN), Thinking-Feeling (TF) and Judgment-Perception (JP) are used for the classifications.

2.1.1. c. Cognitive Styles from the Thinking Point-of-View

Harrison and Bramson (A. F. Harrison and Bramson, 1977; A.F. Harrison and Bramson, 1982) classified cognitive styles in a third manner into five different thinking styles by which individuals assess problems and arrive at decisions -- much like cognitive styles alluded to in the previous chapter. They are the synthesist, the idealist, the pragmatist, the analyst and the realist styles. The synthesist tends to focus on underlying assumptions and abstract concepts. The idealist focuses on process, values and aspirations. The pragmatist looks for the immediate payoff and uses incremental step-by-step thinking. The analyst concentrates on method and plan, seeks predictability through ordering data and concrete detail. The realist evaluates available resources and immediately apprehensible facts. Harrison and Bramson developed the Inquiry Mode Questionnaire to measure these cognitive styles. Each of the five types of thinking style is assessed with separate subscales. There are five responses for any of the eighteen hypothetical situations. The individuals filling the questionnaire are asked to rank the responses on a scale of one to five to accurately identify their own style of thinking. The scores are them summed over the eighteen situations.

2.1.1. d. Cognitive Styles from the Conflict Resolution Point-of-View

Thomas and Kilmann (Blake, Shepherd and Mouton, 1964). The five styles are related to how individuals react to conflicts and are classified as competing, accommodating, avoiding, collaborating and compromising. An individual possessing a competitive style will pursue his or her individual aims and objectives without taking into account the impact of decisions on others directly or indirectly impacted by their decision in a conflict situation. In the accommodating style, the individual will go above and beyond to ensure that the needs of others are accommodated before even considering their own personal needs thereby avoiding any conflict in the process. Individuals who have an avoiding or withdrawal style do not aggressively pursue their own concerns and conflicts with another person and prefers not to address the conflict at all. The collaborating or problem-solving style is an attempt to work with the other person to find some solution, which satisfies the concerns of both parties. A compromising or sharing style personality will try and find some expedient, mutually acceptable solution that partially satisfies both parties.

2.2 Ideal Leadership Qualities

Open, communicative, curious, hard-working, possessing appropriate academic qualifications, enthusiastic, full of energy, friendly, confident, articulate, strong command of the language used, and willingness to learn new things are few of the qualities that re often used to describe a leader. The ideal profile for a leader is very often defined internally by members of the organization, team, group, country and/or geographical region who know and understand the requirements needed to succeed in the mission. Success in any mission also requires passion. The leader must believe passionately in what is being done and should be able to motivate his followers to do the same. Creativity and independent thinking is also important for a leader and the problems being faced may differ with location, time and culture. Persistence and the inner strength and personal conviction to go on even when it becomes difficult are very critical.

The perseverance and determination displayed by British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill during the Second World War was a morale booster for his countrymen. The speech at Dunkirk on the French side of the Straits of Dover in May 1940 where he stated: "we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender" was delivered at a time when the Belgian, British and French Armies were almost surrounded and the troops were being attacked from all sides and the air. The ordinary citizens of Britain were also subjected to extensive air raids and bombing by the German troops. Winston Churchill was able to get the people motivated and renew the patriotic fervor felt by the people and Churchill contribution in winning the war for the Allied forces will never be forgotten for a long time.

It is clear that Mr. Churchill was not without his faults and shortcomings; but he was able to lead the country when it counted. No individual is perfect. And very often, thoughts and images of perfections are an illusion. Plato felt that developing a philosopher-king who will exercise absolute power with wisdom, compassion and restraint was important and could help in defining leadership required for the society. (Gla.AC.UK, 2003) Modern day pressures have placed an unprecedented burden or expectations on leaders. The people who accomplish these premium goals are ambitious and determined enough to go to extraordinary lengths to fulfill their mission. They put it above everything else.

2.3 Understanding the Ideal types of Leadership:

Harrison and Bramson (1982) (A. F. Harrison and Bramson, 1982) defined five ideal types of leadership observed in individuals. There are some similarities in these characters but they cannot be compared on the same levels in all situations. The five styles identified are:

The Synthesist Leadership - The "Dialectic" leader

Synthesists are apt to appear challenging, skeptical, or satirically amused, even when others can see no cause for any of that." They like playing devil's advocate and tend to enjoy conflicts and arguments for the love of a discussion. They believe that conflicts can sprout creative thinking and innovations. They operate on a Thesis-Antithesis base where thesis defines the known and accepted knowledge and Antithesis is the new and untested knowledge. They generally can provoke a debate, argument or conflict with ease -- they then sit back, observe and document the reactions, ideas and thoughts that the discussion provokes. They speculate and force thinking by putting out new and controversial ideas. They believe that conflicts will invariably arise in any situation and they prefer to go to that stage directly and move on from there -- by doing so they rationalize that all issues are out in the open from the get do and no disillusions can be formed at later stages. Leaders using this type of strategy also tend to ask smart and dumb questions all in the same sentence. They expect the person answering the question to either convince or dissuade them for a situation whose outcome they are already aware of. The strength of the Synthesists is their ability to evaluate both sides of the argument and not pass judgment or form an opinion about the situation -- at this stage these individuals displays the qualities of a mature and knowledgeable leader with advance intelligence level.

They force their followers to look at the problem from all viewpoints and they honestly believe that the followers are served better if thy can evaluate all the options and find their own conclusion. Synthesists respect and understand that others have their own cognitive way of understanding and resolving situations. They can however torment individuals who are non-Synthesists by constantly provoking thoughts and new ideas making these individuals feel edgy and off balance. Even when they suggest a way out they challenge that someone else could probably have a better way out. Conflict at all times and speculation keeps them and their followers constantly thinking.

The Idealists leadership - The "Holistic" leader

Idealists look and respond attentively and receptively." Idealists tend to avoid conflicts and try to be accommodating and understanding in their dealings with others. They follow a holistic approach to leading and understanding their followers and others. They tend to look at the whole picture and believe that no situation exists in isolation. Wholesomeness and assimilation are two very strong traits for an idealist. They tend to steer others away from their own individual goals and ambitions towards satisfying the overall goal and mission. Leaders who follow this style tend to think for the long-term and plan accordingly. The future and long-term goals motivate their decisions. They also tend to over plan, there by taking longer to make important decisions. In some ways this prevents impulsive decisions in the short-term but this can also impact situations where quick and important decisions have to be made quickly.

They give the impression of caring genuinely for others. They are very good listeners and are very much in tune with people and their feelings. They however are not very keen on data review and facts leading to the situation. Their people skills make them very approachable and people relate to them and trust these leaders. Because of this interest in people and relationships, idealists will try and humanize an argument. They treat people with respect and not like any other resource such as machinery and tend to avoid dealing with "manpower" problems in a pure statistical mindset. Idealist will endeavor to find the correct and proper way to handle a situation. These traits tend to make them go overboard but if this strategy is used in the right proportions this type of leadership can be very effective.

The Pragmatists Leadership - The "Tactician" leader

Pragmatists often show a good deal of humor, a quickness to agree with others' ideas." The pragmatist does not shy away from conflicts but neither does he enjoy them. They believe brainstorming is essential and required if creativity and excellence is to be maintained on the job. They realize that conflicts and debates will originate as a result; and they use the conflict and discussion so far. They will do whatever it takes to ensure that all operations are performed in a timely manner -- they will experiment and try new things in achieving this. They can be impulsive and perform tasks that may solve the problem in the short-term but may not offer any long-term solutions for the problem. This type of leadership shows demonstrable results quickly as the leader demonstrates his capability in short and very obvious problem situation that arise on a daily bases.

The creativity and innovate trait displayed for short-term goals can create quick payoffs, thereby boosting the morale of others working with this type of leader. These leaders also believe that small baby-steps are required; and that, they can be used very effectively to attain long-term goals if well utilized. The pragmatist leader is a good tactician and seldom gets caught without an alternative or "Plan B" approach for any situation. The pragmatists believe in their way of thinking and are good at convincing others of its validity. In this way, they are good marketers of ideas. They understand their audiences and understand how to package their proposals to make them sell. There manner of approaching problematic situations can make it appear that the work "off the cuff" and this style may be intimidating to more conservative and methodical people dealing with them.

The Analysts Leadership - The "Logical" Leader

Analysts tend to appear cool, studious, perhaps distant and hard to read." They follow a very traditional and logical approach when dealing with any situation or problem. They are firm believers in rules and regulations and rarely tend to cross the line when faced with a situation. Leaders who display this type of trait rely heavily on data and facts gathered and will not feel comfortable if asked to make a decision without the benefit of data. They believe more data is advantageous and will constantly strive to obtain as much as possible. Their basic strategy is one of methodology and the scientific method. When asked to perform out of their expertise and without knowledge and understanding they are generally not comfortable and often will not be able to perform. Their high ability to focus and break up seemingly complicated data and facts into understandable and logical processes make them a valuable choice as leader in highly scientific and critical situations. They believe that good data is proof enough to demonstrate that the choice made was the best for the situation.

They believe that a solution for any problem can be found in isolation and the effect of a decision if well made will not impact other situations. Their ability to systematically compartmentalize and evaluate a situation helps in understanding the entire process not in an overall manner but at the component level. Individuals who are analysts at heart tend to also keep good records and documentation of the process and procedures that were undertaken in obtaining the goal. Their ability to track and document details makes them appear at nitpickers and perfectionist but the task will be completed in a manner that is beyond reproach. They also generally do not posses "people" skills and are often out of touch when dealing with personal relations with their followers and the people they are dealing with.

The Realists Leadership -The "Firm" Leader

Realists tend to have a direct, forceful, frank appearance, not necessarily aggressive, but sometimes that too." They are no-nonsense people. They rely on instinct and feelings to help them determine their course of action, while at the same time using empirical data to identify their choice of plan. They will question and analyze situations. Once they understand the goal to be accomplished, they will set up a course of action and plan to obtain these objectives. They prefer to work on something only if then can see the clear picture of the mission they are pursuing. The realist relies on fact but not in the same way as the analyst. The analyst is more of a "data" person. Data and facts are important for the realist but they are not the "start and end all" for any decision-making. They like to simplify things and break complex problems down to simpler ones. Realists also have a much better idea of their limitations. They won't hesitate to bring in outside expert help when it's required.

Realists are people with strong opinions. They are "matter of fact" people. The realist will take immediate corrective action under problematic circumstances and any other response could be disastrous. They have a low tolerance for ambiguity and prefer immediate facts. Their main strength comes in setting clear, near-term objectives.

The Combination Leadership Types:

It is very often observed that leaders and individuals display a combination of the five basic types of leadership and are generally not purist in their following of any one given style. Some of the commonly observed combinations of two style leadership types are; the idealist-analyst, the analyst-realist, the synthesist-idealist, the idealist-realist, the pragmatist-realist, the idealist-pragmatist, the analyst-pragmatist, the analyst-synthesist, the synthesist-pragmatist and the synthesist-realist. In many cases, leaders also display a combination of three leadership styles depending on the situation that they encounter.

The trait approach emphasizes the personal qualities of leaders and implies that leaders are born rather then made. In contrast, researchers who take the behavioral approach believe that this behavior that makes for effective leadership. Such leaders can be identified and emulated by others to become better leaders. (Allen F. Harrison and Bramson, 2002)

2.4 Classification of Leadership Styles

Leaders carry out their roles in a wide variety of styles, e.g., autocratic, democratic, participatory, laissez-faire (hands off), etc. Often, the leadership style depends on the situation, including the life cycle of the organization. Leadership style influences level of motivation. Self-motivated people are goal motivated. Once they conquer one goal, they establish another. Recognition is important; it builds positive self-esteem. By itself, its benefits are short lived. Level of personal achievement is based on the size of a personal vision. There are numerous often-contradictory views on the traits and characteristics that leaders should have. Six of the common classifications of leadership styles are discussed below:

2.4.1 The Ohio State Leadership Styles

The Ohio State University as the early 1 950s conducted an array of leadership studies. (Ubben and Hughes, 1992) Some examples of consideration are: being approachable, accepting of suggestions, looking out for the welfare of subordinates and consulting with subordinates before making decisions. Examples of Initiating Structure are: criticizing unsatisfactory work, letting subordinates know what is expected of them, maintaining definite standards of performance and offering new approaches to problems. There are leaders who are both task and people-oriented while there are also leaders who are not concerned about either.

Figure 2.1 The Ohio State Leadership Quadrants

Source: Hersey, Blanchard and Johnson (1996, p106)

2.4.2 The Michigan Leadership Styles

Researchers at The University of Michigan studied which dynamics effected leadership effectiveness. They came up with two dimensions of leadership styles, which they termed as employee-oriented and production-oriented. (Robbins and Mukherji, 1990) describe leaders who are employee-oriented as emphasizing interpersonal relations; they take a personal interest in the needs of their subordinates and accept individual differences among members. The production-oriented leaders, in contrast, tend to emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job, they are concerned mainly with accomplishing their group's tasks, and they regard group members as a means to that end.

2.4.3 The Managerial Grid

Blake and co-workers (Blake, Shepherd and Mouton, 1964) proposed a Managerial Grid which is a two dimensional view of leadership style. This grid is based on the styles of concern for people and concern for production, which essentially represents the Ohio State dimensions of consideration and initiating structure or the Michigan dimensions of employee orientation and production orientation. The grid, depicted below has nine possible positions along each axis, creating eighty-one different positions into which a leader's style may fall.

Figure2.2 Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid

Source: Blake and Mouton (1978, p11).

2.4.4 Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum of Leadership Behavior

Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmidt's 1957 Harvard Business Review article "How to Choose a Leadership Pattern" was one of the initial and one of the most significant situational approaches to leadership. They proposed a continuum of leader behavior between two extremes of autocratic and democratic styles. (Tannenbaum and Smith, 1957) Beyond the democratic end is the laissez-faire style. Autocratic (authoritarian) leaders are leaders who make most of the decisions themselves instead of allowing their followers to participate in them. Democratic (participative) leaders are leaders who focus on the welfare and feelings of followers, have confidence in themselves and have a strong need to develop and empower their team members. Laissez-faire (free-rein) leaders are leaders who are 'loose' and permissive and let followers do what they want.

Figure 2.3 Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum of Leader Behavior

Source: Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) in Harvard Business Review 36(2), p96.

2.4.5 Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Styles

Hersey and Blanchard defined four types of leadership styles based on the situations that define the type of interaction between the leader and the others. (Ubben and Hughes, 1992)

In the "Telling" style the leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when and where to do various tasks. The leader also supervises all tasks. This style emphasizes directive behavior. "Selling" leadership style is practiced when the leader provides both directive behavior and supportive behavior. When the leader and the followers share in decision-making where the main role of the leader is that of a facilitator and a communicator, the "Participating" type of leadership is practiced. When the skill level and knowledge of the worker has increased due to experience and understanding of the job the leader may provide little or no direction or support to the group in this case the leader practices the "Delegating" style of management.

Figure 2.4 Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model

Source: Hersey and Blanchard (1982, p152).

2.4.6 Reddin's Classification of Leadership Styles

Reddin identified four basic leadership styles, which are essentially the same as those identified by Blake and Mouton in the Managerial Grid. (Reddin, 1977) But Reddin went beyond the grid approach by building in the concept that different situations require different styles and that the effectiveness of a style depends upon the situation in which it is used.

2.5 Other Leadership styles

Leadership is also seen as a power relation between two or more people. Raven and French define leadership in terms of differential power relationships among members of a group. (Yukl and Falbe, 1991) Reward power refers to the leader's capacity to reward followers for the good work and efficient operation. The leader's power increases if he possesses and controls rewards that are valued by subordinates. Rewards such as praise, recognition, and attention are sources of personal power possessed by the leader as an individual. In addition, a leader also usually controls certain organizational rewards, such as pay rises and promotions. These are sources of power that depend upon the leader's position in the organization.

Coercive power refers to the leader's power to punish followers for their shortcomings. Examples of these are criticism, withholding increments, or withholding confirmation. Legitimate power refers to the power a leader possesses as a result of his occupying a particular position or role in the organization. Subordinates are obliged to comply with requests and directions issued by the leader because of the norms, policies and procedures which are accepted as legitimate by all members of the organization. Expert power refers to power that a leader possesses as a result of his or her knowledge and expertise regarding the tasks to be performed by the subordinates. Expertise depends upon the personal characteristics of the leader, and subordinates are likely to respond positively to a leader's attempt o influence their behavior if the leader possesses the knowledge or information that they themselves lack. Referent power, which is dependent upon the leader's personal characteristics, depends upon the degree to which subordinates admire, identify with, and wish to emulate the leader. The more sources of power the leader has, the more likely that he will be successful in influencing subordinates to do those things that he would like him to do. However, a leader's potential power very much depends on his or her own personal characteristics and style.

Fidler further mentions that leadership is associated with formulating and communicating a strategy based on a vision of a better future and inspiring followers to strive towards it. He further notes that an identifiable trend over the past few years has been to identify leadership with the more formative and proactive aspects of the direction of an organization's affairs. Moreover, unlike management, which is assigned merely to supportive roles such as routine planning and implementing systematic procedures, active leadership is likely to be concerned with exceptional situations where new activities and new ways of working are being contemplated. (Fidler, 1997)

2.6 Leadership qualities a Principal would require:

The role a leader plays depends on the organization to which the leader is associated. In a school, the Principal is the leader and guide for the educational and administrative. Principals are expected to understand situations and problems facing the school and make decisions in a timely and appropriate manner. They are responsible for managing the day-to-day running of the school and ensuring that the missions of the school are accomplished. Principals are often identified as key figures in determining the quality of a school. They have traditionally come from the ranks of teachers. (Choy et al., 1992)

Statistics taken in 1993-94, indicated a total of 79,618 principals who worked in public schools across the United States. (NCES.ED.GOV, 1995) There were a total of 52,114 men and 27,505 women. Almost 85% were white, about 10% were African-American, and only 4% were Hispanic. Additionally, 53,688 principals served in elementary schools, 23,187 worked in secondary schools, and 2,743 were assigned to combined schools. On average, each had been a principal for about 8.5 years.

Teachers and educators involved in the school are responsible for educating and developing the students under their care. The family structure has also changed and evolved over time. It is very normal to have students who come from homes where both parents work outside the home. Parents and society therefore have a higher expectation of the role that schools should play in the development of the children in their care. Very often, teachers are expected to observe and relate to the students and their problems. Teachers become role models and are expected to conduct themselves in a manner that is above reproach.

In the modern day environment of budget cuts and the concept of doing more with less, many schools are operating with limited number of teachers. Principals are faced with a task of making to do with less while at the same time maintaining their objective of imparting education to the student. Principals have to delegate and assign tasks in order to achieve the goals of the school. They also have to allow teachers reasonable latitudes to achieve the preset goals and have to avoid constantly second guessing decisions made by the teachers. (Compton, 1997)

Teachers and employees who do not like the way a school or department works may try their level best to find loopholes and shortcomings in the manner in which the Principal manages the school. They may collect information of systems used for better management of schools from other schools in the same school district and/or from other school districts for the process that they think is a better and more ideal method for managing the school. If however, their suggestions and recommendations are not well accepted by their peers and the principal, they may feel let down and may develop resentment to the job and the other people in the department. Dissonance caused by lack of social support can be reduced -- if the person is willing to change their opinion to the opinion to agree with the disagreeing persons, persuading the disagreeing parties to change their opinions, or disparaging the disagreeing persons.

Chapter 3 -- EXISTING CONDITIONS IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction:

study conducted by Criswell and Betz in 1995 determined that 66% of the teaching staff in schools in the U.S. was female. (Hammer and Rohr, 1990)

Both genders have unique and different management-styles of. Management attributes were traditionally associated with aggressive, dominating, controlling and unemotional traits. Principals, who in fact are managers of the schools, were expected to be aloof, reserved and the final authority in all decision making processes. Little or no input was expected from teachers and other staff in the school. The teachers were expected to follow the rules and regulations laid down by the administration. While, in many cases, this form of management was okay and did help in maintaining the level of education and standard in the school, it did not foster active participation among the teachers.

In a synthesis of research on instructional leadership, instructional leadership encompasses "those actions that a principal takes, or delegates to others, to promote growth in student learning." Effective instructional leadership is based on the assumption that the principal can and is capable of changing the teaching-learning situation to achieve the school's academic goals.

Many writers have mentioned the importance of the principal as an instructional leader of the school. (Newton, 1993)

3.1 Gender differences in Management:

Management styles differ. Society and parents generally tend to "gender-condition" children for line. Boys, for example, are told they should not cry or display feeling while it is okay for a girl to do it. Boys are also expected to be tough and aggressive and told from a very young age that they need to be "strong." The worst insult for a little boy generally is that he is acting like a girl. It is assumed that the male gender has better analytical and logical aptitude while the female gender has better emotional and situational aptitude. The male is still considered a breadwinner while the woman a homemaker for the family.

Gender, race, culture and cognition play a major role in forming the style of management preferred by individuals. Men and women can both be effective managers although they may achieve the same results using different styles of managing and controlling people working for them. The similarities between men and women managers outweigh the differences that are observed in their management styles. Most organizations are still predominately male dominated and follow an "autocratic" style of leadership. When a woman makes it to the top, she may consciously or subconsciously conform to male norms in at attempt to further her status in the organization. Traditional structured organizations create a 'command and control' culture prejudicial both to the personal qualities of women and to teamwork.

Men practice a power- and knowledge-based form of leadership. The status and hierarchical position in the organizational structure is important for a man and he will try and maintain the status in the organization. In addition, he will also be constantly trying to advance his position up the organizational structure in a very focused and aggressive manner. Women on the other hand use interpersonal skills and peer involvement to accomplish a task. They choose personal liaison rather than bureaucracy when it comes to communication. Women tend to seek consensus in their decision making process and this is very often viewed as a sign of weakness by the subordinates of both sexes. Women often are also held up to higher standards of evaluation and assessment; and once they get an executive position, they have to constantly prove themselves at every juncture. This constant evaluation is not as obvious of male managers and executives. The public and societies constant judgmental attitude very often deter women from seeking high positions and rank due to the stress and constant performance standard that they are expected to maintain.

School are, of late, trying to encourage more women into administrative positions by offering them a choice of transformational leadership and more integrated form of management using the people skills and realistic mindset that comes very easily to women. Women have traditional been the building block for families and peacemakers within the household. Modern studies in management and social behavior patterns have indicated that the people oriented coupled with a task oriented outlook is the ideal mix that can produce the optimum results desired in an organization. (Gupton and Slick, 1996) As in any other situation, communication between teachers and the principal is very important and critical. Good, two-way communication can help solve problems quickly and without extensive animosity and conflicts. While different leadership styles like the Synthesists or Idealistic style can greatly impact the synergy within the school and the teachers' individual cognitive styles displayed by the teachers and principals can also be a major variable in determining an effective management style.

It is observed that teachers prefer a people-oriented style to a task-oriented style. High people- and high task oriented style was the preference of most teachers. Using the Management grid system a "9.9" management style was the most preferred by teachers. (Flocco, 1969)) those described as high in both consideration and the initiation of structure by staff subordinates were rated more effective. This preference has not changed since 1969.

A study conducted by Johnetta Hudson and Dorothy Rea in the summer of 1998 can be tabulated as follows (Hudson and Rea, 1998)

Qualities in a Principal

Male principal

Female Principal

Communicator (desirable)

Unemotional (not desirable)

Emotional (not desirable)

Authoritarian (not desirable)

Shares power and credit

Collaborative

Decisive

Some of the desirable qualities the teachers in the survey preferred in a principal were: good verbal communication, good management, ability to listen well, problem solving, knowledgeable about the curriculum and instruction, sharing power and credit, and seeking a variety of input. These qualities were desirable for principals of both genders. And they were desired by teachers of both genders. Many of the teachers also felt that female principals could be a little more decisive and make faster decisions. Although there is no direct relationship observed between the teachers' preferred cognitive and leadership styles, the teachers generally hoped for a style that combined cognition and leadership from a result-oriented viewpoint -- for the betterment of the school and its students. It is found that different teachers do employ different cognitive styles in approaching situations and problems. Three of the most popular cognitive styles are the analyst, the realist and the idealist. There are few pragmatists among teachers and yet fewer synthesists. Generally, teachers prefer an integrated leadership style that is both people-oriented and task-oriented. However, between these two leadership styles, they have a stronger liking for the people-oriented style.