Learning Theories and Model Comparison

¶ … Learning Theories and Models

One of the earliest types of learning theory is that of behaviorist theory, made famous by theorists such as B.F. Skinner. Although Skinner formalized the principles of behaviorism down to a science, at its core behaviorism is based upon simple 'carrot and stick' theory learning, namely that students are punished when they are incorrect and rewarded when they produce the desired response -- or in the workplace where workers are docked pay when they are late and rewarded with a bonus if they sell more widgets.

Cognitive theories of learning, as the name suggests, are based in the belief that "knowledge is actively constructed by learners and that any account of knowledge makes essential references to cognitive structures" (Behaviorism, 2011, Teaching guide for graduate instructors). Skinner used schedules of reinforcement in the form of operant conditioning to train animals to run mazes and push buttons by rewarding them with food for the correct response (positive reinforcement) and/or reinforcing negative behaviors with an unpleasant stimulus such as the absence of food. Reinforcement may be consistent (given every time the behavior is exhibited) or inconsistent (given occasionally when the desired response is offered by the subject). In some instances, behaviors similar to the eventual desired response may be praised and rewarded, to shape the behaviors of the subject (usually this is done with more complex skills).

Of course, in the classroom, teachers cannot give the students candy every time a math problem is completed correctly or the students sit at their desks in silence. However, many behaviorist principles are still evident in the classroom. "Behaviorist teaching methods tend to rely on so-called 'skill and drill; exercises to provide the consistent repetition necessary for effective reinforcement of response patterns. Other methods include question (stimulus) and answer (response) frameworks in which questions are of gradually increasing difficulty; guided practice; and regular reviews of material" (Behaviorism, 2011, Teaching guide for graduate instructors).

However, while behaviorism has been found to be effective in teaching rote knowledge, it has been criticized for being mainly useful in teaching fact-based concepts, rather than truly teaching children how to learn. In contrast, constructivist theory (a cognitive approach to learning) suggests that students must be the 'authors' of their own, individualized process of learning acquisition. It stresses 'learning how to learn' rather than making the content of learning the primary focus of schooling. "Teachers help students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. The constructivist teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities with which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment" (Constructivism as a paradigm for teaching and learning, 2013, Concept to Classroom). Teachers may even allow students to get an answer 'wrong' at first, asking probing questions to allow the student to recognize why the answer is incorrect him or herself, rather than deploying the negative reinforcement emphasized by behaviorism.

One of the most noteworthy educators in the history of constructivism is that of Vygotsky and his theory of the "zone of proximal learning, according to which students solve problems beyond their actual developmental level (but within their level of potential development) under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Constructivism as a paradigm for teaching and learning, 2013, Concept to Classroom). Like behaviorists, Vygotsky did agree that learning built upon past concepts, but believed that the learning process should be shaped according to the needs and existing knowledge of the student, which might vary from individual to individual and which might require individualized approaches to succeed. Also, consistent with developmental theory, he did not regard all learners as blank slates, but believed that past social influences had an impact upon learning. The sociability of individuals had an innately positive effect in most instances, as children could learn a great deal from modeling others in their peer group and elsewhere. This person is known as the more knowledgeable other (MKO) and can help the child learn and move beyond the zone of proximal learning (McLeod 2007). In the workplace, this is often an older, official mentor rather than a teacher.

Humanistic theories of learning, in contrast, stress that learning itself is not necessarily the goal of instruction. Rather, learning itself should be a rewarding process, not the gold stars emphasized by behaviorism. Unlike constructivist approaches, rather than the teacher leading and shaping the student, the student is the guide for the learning process. "The humanist teacher is a facilitator, not a disseminator, of knowledge. Participatory and discovery methods would be favoured" (Sturt n.d.). The student may select what he or she wishes to learn, based upon the philosophy (also echoed in constructivism) that learning how to learn and reinforcing the innate structures that promote learning are important. Humanistic philosophies of education are heavily influenced by Rogerian psychology which stresses the need to bolster the self-esteem and self-concept of the individual as a path to mental health and healing. The 'open classroom' approach has no set schedule. Students, based upon their own learning styles (kinesthetic, verbal, visual, spatial, and so forth) can choose how they learn different subject matters. The disadvantage with this approach is that students may be unaware of subjects that exist that might be interesting to them, and may fail to learn 'the basics.' Also, the intimacy required for humanistic approaches can be unrealistic, although some humanistic concepts such as cooperative learning and teamwork are occasionally seen in the workplace.