Lester Frank Ward and his contributions to sociology

Lester Frank Ward was a Nineteenth Century sociologist and social theorist whose contribution to the discipline is not well-known or often quoted today. However, he has been described by some as the "... father of American sociology. "(Lester Frank Ward) His views and contributions opened up new avenues for sociological thinking in the Unites States. Among his theories, what stands out in a contemporary sense is his thinking and views on women and female equality in society.

Ward was born on June 18, 1841 in Joliet, Illinois, the son of Justus Ward and Silence Rolph. "(Lester Frank Ward) He was largely self-educated and during the Civil War he ruminated on the inequalities and disparities in society. After the Civil War he entered the now George Washington University and received the a.B. degree in 1869, the LL.B. degree in 1871, and the a.M. degree in 1872. (Lester Frank Ward)

Ward went on to work as a geologist and then as a paleontologist in 1892. (Lester Frank Ward) However, he is best known for his theoretical pioneering work in sociology. Between 1883 and 1913, he completed several significant works of theory, including Dynamic Sociology (1883), Outlines of Sociology (1898), Pure Sociology (1903), and Applied Sociology (1906). (Lester Frank Ward) He also served as the first president of the American Sociological Society, between 1906 and 1907 and he was the editor of the American Journal of Sociology. His place in the history of American sociology is emphasized by the view that, "In perspicacity, intellectual acumen and imagination, Lester Frank Ward takes place alongside William James, John Dewey and Oliver Wendell Holmes as one of the creative spirits of 20th century America." (Guide to the Lester Frank Ward Papers, 1883-1919)

2. Major theories and concepts

2.1. General concepts and views

Much the sociological theory that Ward wrote about and developed was based on his scientific and biological observations and insights. This can be seen in that many of his theoretical views about the way that society functioned were derived from the fact that he, "...analyzed developments in social organization in terms of energy, and combinations and specialization in the use of energy." (Biography: Lester Frank Ward) in other words, central to this sociological theory were the biological and scientific models that he referred to and which he related to the social and human world around him.

This scientific stance and the way that human society interacted and related to nature are central themes in his work Dynamic Sociology (1883) and Pure Sociology (1903). (Biography: Lester Frank Ward) However, what is also essential to understand in terms of his sociological stance, is that he did not advocate a cold and empty form of scientific rationality. In tandem with his biological, evolutionary and scientific views of human society was the equal, if not greater, importance of human will and reason in determining and shaping human society. He also includes the "...the role of feelings, motives, and will in social affairs." (Biography: Lester Frank Ward) This was extensively discussed in Psychic Factors in Civilization (1893). (Biography: Lester Frank Ward)

Therefore, his theoretical trajectory in terms of an analysis of society was based on the use of human reason to control and instruct society in order to create a "perfect" and smoothly functioning social environment.

In his work, Dynamic Sociology he argued that "...progress depended on a planned society led and controlled by a benevolent government, that provided universal education, freedom from poverty and happiness for all." (Lester Frank Ward)

In order to understand the foundational concepts that inspired Ward's theories of society, one must not only consider the value he places on science and reason but also his view of nature. Nature and evolution were factors that were external to man but were also were seen as forces that were the origins of the human mind. It is through the mind and reason that man is able to control nature and to engineer a perfect society. This important perception is summarized as follows:

Energy and matter, working through natural laws, produced life on the earth and then brought this life to its supreme manifestation in the human mind. Man, equipped with the ability to reason, can become a social engineer. Using his reason and his knowledge he can create a better society. (Gabriel & Walker, 1986, p. 218)

1.2. Social equality and the sexes

An extremely important part of his social theory from a contemporary perspective is his view on the role and function of women in society. He was a strong advocate of the concept of equality and the equal rights and status of women in society - a view that was not very well accepted by the society of his time and his contemporaries. "Ward supported the idea of equality of women as well as the equality of all classes and races in society." (Lester Frank Ward)

In fact, Ward went so far as to suggest that the female gender was superior to the male in society. He theorized that "...women were naturally superior to men...In this regard," Ward presaged the rise of feminism..." (Biography: Lester Frank Ward)

This view of equality was also related to the scientific and rational conception and paradigm of society and Ward opposed an open and less controlled form of social government. This in turn is related to another important concept in his overall sociological theory, which is the importance of education as a factor that can ensure a fair and equal society. "He believed in universal education as a means of achieving this equality." (Lester Frank Ward)

1.2. Rationalism, progress and a governed society

Ward's view of rationality led his to assertion that society needed a strong and fair governance that could ensure the quality life for all and the social progress of the members of the society. This is also linked to education as a factor in the promotion of a rational society.

Ward argued that society is best served when a benevolent government provides education to all, and protects the weak from the strong. Startlingly for his time, he also argued for equal treatment of the races and genders, believing equality could be accomplished by providing "wider diffusion of knowledge" and universal education to all who want it.

Lester Frank Ward)

He was also of the opinion that, "...the intellectual capacities of the common man were underrated" and that through education society could advance to produce ideas and model of coexistence. (Gabriel & Walker, 1986, p. 219) Through education people would be, "...more willing to support intelligent legislation. Education was the foundation of progress." (Gabriel & Walker, 1986, p. 219)

One has to take into account this strong emphasis on rationality and the power of human reason as a cardinal aspect of his theoretical stance on society. He has been described as "... The evangelist of the new rationalism..." (Gabriel & Walker, 1986, p. 215) Ward's views are also linked to the ideal of a liberal and progressive society that manages and controls the vicissitudes of nature. He also states that he was an "... apostle of human progress." (Gabriel & Walker, 1986, p. 215) it is significant to note that,

More than any other single individual, Ward formulated the basic pattern of the American concept of the planned society." (Gabriel & Walker, 1986, p. 215)

The concept of rationality was also used to suggest that progress in society and the reduction of poverty could be achieved through the implementation of scientific reason. "Mankind wasn't helpless before the impersonal force of nature and evolution -- through the power of Mind, man could take control of the situation and direct the evolution of human society." (Biography: Lester Frank Ward)

Another aspect that should be considered is his opposition to data that was not scientifically or rationally verifiable. He was also opposed to forms of supernatural or religious interpretations of society and social development.

His view of the importance of government and control is also a result of his intense focus on rational thought and praxis. He rejects Spencer's theory of laissez faire or the "... doctrine that government should not interfere in commercial affairs." (laissez-faire)

In Ward's view, the government should be "...used as an instrument to regulate business, and to secure a more equitable distribution of wealth." (Gabriel & Walker, 1986, p. 220)

3. Critical analysis

In many ways Ward was ahead of his contemporaries in some of his theories and views of society. The sociological vision that he proposed was essentially more egalitarian and his view in the equality of race and the sexes was radical and revolutionary for his time. His assertion that women should have an equal say in the society was a feature of his sociological theory that has resonated well with modern sociologists.

However, on the hand the fundamentalist rationalism that forms the basis of his theories has to large extent been criticized, although the spirit of much of his social thinking is in line with contemporary liberal philosophy. (Courtney) Furthermore, in an analysis of his theories it should also be realized that Ward was deeply influence by the intellectual and scientific tenor of his times. He grew up and was educated in an era where scientific progress and rationality were seen as the most effective and promising paradigms for progressive thought and action and there was the cultural belief that science in particular could be the solution to a variety of social ills and problems. This ethos can also be related back to the Enlightenment, which was a period that was seen as a "... new stage in the evolution of humankind, and enabled people to claim a new confidence, a new authority through the operation of reason and its principles." (Traynor, 1999. p. 5) in many ways the theories that Ward propounded can be seen to have been engendered by the faith in progress stemming for the Enlightenment.

Wards extreme faith in human reason has been questioned in modern sociological theory and philosophy. The advent of the sociology of knowledge and the relativistic critique of rationalist ideologies has permeated much of sociological theory and the other social sciences. This modern movement and interrogation of rationalism and science has questioned the rational fundamentalism of thinkers like Ward and relegated their theories to the past. (Historicist Theories of Rationality) This is combined with the fact that science and pure rationality has been largely discounted and deconstructed in modern disciples, including sociology. One could also refer in this regard to and the alternative forms of rationality identified by Max Weber and others. (Sociology and the roots of protest: a critique of the "new social movements")

However, despite these critiques, Ward's approach to the sociology of gender is one of the aspects that is still receiving critical appraisal from sociologists. For example, in Lester Frank Ward as a Sociologist of Gender: a New look at His Sociological Work by Barbara Finlay (1999), the author states that;

Ward was one of many early sociologists who supported women's equality and who critically evaluated the role of gender in society, but like the others, his work has been ignored, discounted, and misrepresented by later, more conservative, interpreters of the discipline. However, he should be recognized as one of the important forerunners of the sociology of gender (FINLAY 1999, p.251)

Civelllo (1996) also points to the vision that Ward showed in his assessment of gender in society.

Ward attacked those Darwinists who adduced man's superior strength and intelligence as evidence of his "natural" superiority. Ward concluded that this demonstrated woman's primacy in evolutionary progress. "Woman," he claimed, "is the unchanging trunk of the great genealogic tree; while man, with all his vaunted superiority, is but a branch, a grafted scion." (Civello, 1996)

It is also important to note that Ward saw the equality and the emancipation of women as an integral part of his larger vision of broader social reform. (Civello, 1996) This is also related to his view that, "...intellectual inequality was perpetuated by social, rather than biological, inequality -- particularly in education and employment." (Civello, 1996)

This again brings us to one of the central aspects of his social theory, namely the importance of education in society and for social progress. This is also related to his analysis of the way in which society functions. Ward states that subjugation of women is "...one of the most extensive and systematic violations of natural laws...and the root of present inequalities throughout society." (Civello, 1996) He was also of the opinion that the female qualities of altruism and sympathy "would benefit... all society." (Civello, 1996) More specifically in terms of sociological theory, Ward stance was essentially a modification of the views of Spenser; especially in his refutation of Spenserian individuality and 'survival of the fittest'. (Biography: Lester Frank Ward)