Literacy in Secondary Education Adolescent

Literacy in Secondary Education

Adolescent literacy has started to be reconsidered by teachers and researchers. The focus on adolescent literacy may be explained in two ways:

First, both teachers and researchers in adolescent literacy have acknowledged the impact of culturally and linguistically diverse students on literacy. An example of this current trend is given by Alvermannn and her colleagues, in Reconceptualizing the Literacies in Adolescents' Lives, in which they point to a broader view of adolescent literacies that encompasses gender, race, ethnicity, and social class (Alvermannn, Hinchman, Moore, Phelps, & Waff, 1998).

Second, as we entered the 21st century, media and technology have begun to impact greatly on literacy and on the academic curriculum for Arts and Language disciplines.

Reinking (1998) stated that as "we are heading into a post-typographic world" printed text become less dominant. Therefore, media sources focus on visual content, but also text is present. In order to properly deal with this new ways of communication, students need to acquire various skills (for instance to critically interpret visual content). These visual skills they are required to integrate by high school into both oral and written reports. The particular meaning of media texts for instance can be reached only be identifying and making use of the particular techniques used in the first place in these texts as Dana Grisham observes in her article "Technology and Media Literacy: What Do Teachers Need to Know?" The author also observes that learning to use these techniques in other texts' creation implies learning also to recognize and analyze them in reading and interpreting. The notion of literacy itself begins to change under such circumstances. Dana Grisham cited Alvermann and Hagood (2000) in the beginning of her own account on the topic with their stating about literacy that it is "on the verge of reinventing itself" as many other types of literacies begin to appear: visual literacy, technological literacy, critical literacy, media literacy, and other literacies that make us think what means to be literate in the end.

In this context - of becoming aware of the sociocultural impact on literacy and of technological development and influence on literacy -, it becomes clear that students have different needs, and opportunities, and teachers should facilitate the learning of new skills. For example, the works of Gina Cervetti, Michael Pardales, and James Damico examine the difference between critical reading, or reading analytically, and critical literacy, which involves the stances (or "subjectivities") taken when readers examine a text within particular sociocultural frameworks. (Grisham, D.). Reading critically, involves not only answering the question "What does this text mean?" But also asking "How does it come to have a particular meaning (and not some other)?" Similarly, literacy is more than school literacy, Donna Alvermann asserts (2001). One form of literacy (academic literacy) should not prevail over multiple other forms (e.g., computer, visual, graphic, and scientific literacies) and the idea has been criticized for ignoring the fact that different texts and social contexts (reading for whom, with what purpose) require different reading skills (Barton, Hamilton, & Ivanic, 2000; Gee, 1996; Street, 1995).

In what concerns the skills needed in the new literacy context, an example will be taken from media literacy. As contemporary literacy has lost its conceptual unity it is being referred to as multiple literacies. Media literacy for instance can include media production, information technology, critical media literacy, Web-based literacies, aesthetic literacies (such as dance, music, and theater), communications, and scientific literacy. (Grisham, D.) The variety of literacies implies a need and opportunity to the diversification of skills: interdisciplinary knowledge, technical abilities, critical thinking, problem solving, ability to interpret both printed and digital texts, understanding different ways of organizing information etc.

However, the practical issue that led to an increased interest in adolescent literacy in contemporary research and practice refers to the demands for higher levels of literacy for middle and high school students. Both policy makers and educators realize that literacy is a critical issue also due to students' transition into the middle and high school settings. The complexity of adolescent literacy as learners was also stressed by such authors as Jetton and Alexander (2004) who identified the area of complexity around such matters as students' confrontation in high school with subject areas or domains such as history, algebra, biology, and English. Engaging in these academic fields requires that students possess the requisite knowledge, the strategies, and the motivation to learn the subject matter. From the point-of-view of the increasingly complex academic demands of the subject areas adolescents are confronted with in secondary education, students must have the appropriate background knowledge and strategies for reading a variety of texts. In Alvermannn's opinion (2002) several of these strategies include:

Comprehension monitoring -- identifying improper comprehension and knowing the strategies for improving it, such as rereading, applying reasoning, or using the organizational signals within the text.

Cooperative learning -- problem solving or sharing ideas with peers through discussions, debates, and other peer-led activities.

Using text structure -- understanding that texts are organized by displaying a graphic structure.

Answering questions -- answering questions and receiving feedback to demonstrate an understanding of the text.

Generating questions -- asking questions about information in the text.

Summarizing -- being able to make generalizations that sum up the most important information in the text.

The strategies mentioned above also suggest the skills students need in order to acquire high levels of literacy. However data collected on trends in reading achievement for 13-year-olds and 17-year-olds show that achievement levels have not declined between 1971 and 1999, the percentages of students in grades 8 and 12 who are performing at or above the basic level (e.g., comprehending primarily factual information) are 74 and 77%, respectively. It seems that the percentage of reading achievement decreases as we approach grade 12: in grade 8, fewer than 3% of the students can analyze and extend information, which is required for reading at an advanced level, while in grade 12, fewer than 6% of the students can read at an advanced level (U.S. Department of Education, 1999a). The conclusion is that the level literacy is insufficient in today's world where both reading and writing tasks required of adolescents are continuing to increase in complexity and difficulty. The International Reading Association's position statement on adolescent literacy, suggests that "adolescents deserve instruction that builds both the skill and desire to read increasingly complex materials" (Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999, p. 5) (Alvermann, D., 2001)

The data mentioned above support the fact that there is a lack of a concerted focus on 9-12 literacy equivalent to that placed on early literacy reflected in an insufficient level of literacy. Furthermore, if we refer to the practices teachers use to develop adolescent literacy we may say that they are not connected and supported by research as the research base on 9-12 school literacy practices itself is insufficient to guide teacher preparation and school-based practice.

Research have made significant advances in understanding the abilities young children must acquire to develop beginning reading skills and the conditions under which they are most effectively taught, but very little evidence is available on how these abilities are best acquired and taught during adolescence. It is well-known by now that in learning to read, kindergarten and elementary school-aged children must develop adequate alphabetic reading skills (phonemic awareness and phonics abilities included) and the ability to apply these word-reading skills fluently to both decoding and text-reading activities, and they must develop background knowledge, vocabulary, and reading-comprehension strategies to facilitate their understanding of what they read. However, research has not showed yet to what extent what is known about beginning reading instruction applies to older students who fail to acquire the building blocks of reading.

By now, adolescent literacy research has focused on several aspects: on the cognitive and neural processes in reading comprehension of normal and impaired subjects (Laurie Cutting), on the social and cultural influences on adolescent development (Elizabeth Birr Moje), in which the author studies expectancy values, motivation, engagement, and literacy achievement across different social and cultural groups. Another subject of research is focused on supporting teachers to close adolescent literacy gaps, referring to teacher implementation of recommended instructional approaches and to monitoring the learning growth of students who enter high school below grade level in reading. (James McPartland). Another longitudinal study about adolescent literacy is concerned with the classification, mechanism, and outcome of literacy. (Bennett Shaywitz). (see abstracts on (http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/hs/adollit_pg3.html)

An extensive review by Guthrie and Wigfield (2000) of how instruction influences students' reading engagement and academic performance, concluded that various instructional practices, though important, do not directly impact student outcomes (e.g., time spent reading independently, achievement on standardized tests, performance assessments, and beliefs about reading). The level of student engagement (motivation and its sustainability over time) is therefore the mediating factor through which classroom instruction influences student outcomes (Alvermannn, D, 2001). This study proves another necessity that teachers should take into account in their instruction practices the following factors: student motivation (including self-efficacy and goal setting); strategy use (e.g., using prior knowledge, self-monitoring for breaks in comprehension, and analyzing new vocabulary);growth in conceptual knowledge (e.g., reading tradebooks to supplement textbook information) (Alvermann, D, 2001).

However a very important thing I should mention is the existence of big gaps in adolescent literacy achievement in high school, as I noted above, but, the gap was also defined as the disparity in White and Black students' achievement and in richer and poorer students' achievement. And what is even more worrying is that despite the longstanding federal agenda to reduce this disparity, it has remained largely unchanged. As I have shown, gaps exist between adolescents in terms of literacy achievement that seem to be even more evident among minority groups.

However, compared to early literacy, 9-12 students' literacy has receive less attention up to the present moment. Today there is a growing interest in adolescent literacy but however, early literacy has several advantages both in research and practice over adolescent literacy. For instance, the constant research showed has taken into account the stages of development of young children, and studied literacy according the needs in different stages of development. They established the skills needed for acquiring emergent literacy or writing and conventional literacy etc. Moreover, in order to benefit from the theoretical and practical research, children also benefit from a wide range of children's books and magazines. In classes focused a great deal on literacy, teachers incorporate the characteristics of literacy-rich home environments, but they also use grouping for learning developmentally appropriate practices, and literacy routines; in addition, they have classroom designs that continue to encourage reading and writing (McGee & Richgels, 1996) through learning centers and engaged learning activities.(Kerbow, D., 1999)

Nevertheless, children also benefit from the proven methods of early reading instruction in classrooms - for instance the program Reading First. This program was designed to apply scientifically-based reading principles in school instruction. Another example is the program Reading recovery which is thought to be the best available program for preventing reading failure. All in all, none of these programs are available for adolescents, as the overview on research proved. Adolescent literacy is still in research stage and instruction has not yet fully benefited from this.

Literacy can be defined on a number of levels. It is obviously concerned with the ability to read and write but a fuller definition might be the capacity to recognize, reproduce and manipulate the conventions of text shared by a given community. Literacy, in relation to adolescent learners, is defined by Jetton and Dole (2004) as constructive, fluent, strategic, motivated, and a lifelong pursuit.

The practices of today's literacy in grades 9-12 is very well highlighted by research,

For instance, the practice of adolescent literacy is described by Donna Alvermann in her articles, like the one concerned with how adolescents make meaning of popular culture texts by observing them in action. ("Image, Language, and Sound: Making Meaning with Popular Culture Texts," Donna E. Alvermannn, et. al). They were concerned with the identification of strategies the subject used in relation to texts from popular culture (rap music) and discovered that literacy strategies were applied by making use of different media supports. Another area of research is focused on reading instruction that attends to the needs of learners aged 11 to 14 years who struggle. Gwynne Ellen Ash suggests a pragmatic framework to be applied for such readers. She suggests that framework consists of five practices -- daily oral or shared reading, guided reading in flexible groups, word study, self-selected extended reading and writing, and explicit comprehension strategy instruction. Its origin is in classroom experience, work with middle school teachers, and a synthesis of successful tutoring programs and critical literacy theories. The framework is designed to guide classroom teachers in planning and organizing literacy instruction for young adolescent students at all levels of literacy development.

Another practice in today's literacy is connected to vocabulary teaching. Research by Mary E. Curtis and Ann Marie Longo proved that reading below grade level could be improved significantly by instruction that developed student's vocabularies through listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

Concerning instructional practices researchers focused upon teaching reading in academically diverse classrooms in which students with reading disabilities were enrolled. For instance, Salembier G. And colleagues developed such an instructional program called SCAN and RUN that was developed for the specific purpose of assisting middle and secondary general educators to promote greater reading comprehension development in a wider range of students. The SCAN and RUN mnemonic was designed so as to consist of seven cues for strategies that assist students with actively planning and monitoring their comprehension before, during, and after reading expository text and the results were very encouraging.

In what concerns the actual practice of literacy, as the research mentioned above also highlights they are organized around teaching of grammar, writing, classic literature, reading comprehension, standardized testing content.

However, in what concerns the strategies applied in different school settings, a Survey by HMI in 50 secondary schools proved that the following strategies were more often used:

1) Paired reading schemes, often involving Key Stage 4 or post-16 students working with poor readers in Year 7.

2) Use of "writing frames," DARTS and similar approaches.

3) Key word and concept teaching by several departments.

4) Reading periods (ERIC, USSR, etc.).

5) Specific contributions by English departments.

6) Enhanced SEN work, including literacy hours, reading recovery and other structured approaches.

7) Effective EAL work that influences teaching and learning practice across the curriculum.

8) Summer literacy schemes.

9) Some aspects of commercial schemes.

10) Study skills work, often involving the library/resource centre; opportunities to use library facilities before, during and after school, with staff available to help pupils.

11) Strategies in English, SEN and a range of subjects to improve the performance of boys.

12) Reading and writing clinics and clubs; homework clubs.

13) Continuing support in Key Stage 4 (and beyond), sometimes in the context of communication key skills in a vocational course.

14) Special events, including book fairs, book weeks, visiting writers, storytelling sessions, handwriting competitions.

15) Specially prepared worksheets.

16) Marking policies and practice.

17) Literacy support workers working with nominated pupils across the curriculum.

Literacy achievement is due in a great proportion to the teachers. The teachers should inform themselves about the current research and of the implications of research in practice. However, there is also formal preparation available for teachers in several universities. For instance Colorado University developed a program for teacher preparation in literacy practice. The program issued as a result of the fact that "Recent advances in scientific research in reading have necessitated a sense of urgency to move the knowledge acquired from the convergence of research findings into daily practice in the classrooms of Colorado."

Because the reading achievement scores among Colorado's children over the last several years show limited growth the Colorado State Board of Education has established a focused priority on increasing literacy achievement in Colorado and also established an instructional program for teachers. The literacy courses include Scientifically-Based Reading Research and Comprehensive Literacy Curriculum and Instruction, the organization of literacy instruction based on ongoing assessment, the development of phonological and linguistic skills related to reading, the development reading comprehension and promotion of independent reading, the support of reading through oral and written language development (focus on vocabulary, writing etc.), to utilize Colorado Model Content Standards in reading and writing for the improvement of instruction. Another example of university that ensures continuous teacher preparation is New Jersey University. New Jersey Commission On Higher Education awarded grants to four state colleges and universities under the Teacher Preparation Grant Program designed to increase the number of highly effective teachers prepared to teach math, science, special education, preschool, and literacy in urban schools. The objective is similar to that of Colorado University: "Ensuring quality education for New Jersey's children is a top priority of our administration," (Governor McGreevey). "These grants are targeted to improving the quality of classroom instruction, which is the single greatest factor toward improving a child's performance."

However, we may conclude that universities are aware of the great need for teacher preparation programs in literacy as the research becomes more relevant and suggesting more ways of improving students' literacy.

The Language and Literacy Department of Georgia State University is committed to the development of scholars who understand the processes through which literacy learning occurs and who can apply that understanding to improving instruction and learning in all areas of the language arts. The Department offers a variety of advanced literacy degrees for teachers including teacher preparation programs which lead to initial certification and M.Ed. In English Education, Reading, Language, and Literacy, Middle Childhood, and ESOL; Master's Degrees in Reading, Language and Literacy Education, and English Education; an Ed.S. In Teaching and Learning; and a Ph.D. In Teaching and Learning. In Georgia, a Reading Consortium was formed in 1998 to strategize ways to meet today's high literacy demands and to improve reading instruction in PreK-12 schools. The recommendations of the Consortium to improve literacy in schools concern the major issues attested in this essay concerning literacy and refer to several problems: