Literature review methodology and scholarly applications

ASCA

This research study will focus on teacher's perceptions concerning the role of the school guidance program before and after the implementation of the American School Counselors Association (ASCA) National Model, especially as it pertains to a K-12 school district in the state of New Jersey. The data collected from this study regarding any noticeable differences in the teacher's current perceptions and their perceptions previous to the model being implemented will then be used to extrapolate any positive or negative effects the model is likely having in the educational system.

The ASCA has espoused that, "Implementation of the ASCA National Model is expected to lead to demonstrable benefits for students and to increased recognition of the integral role of school counseling programs in supporting student achievement" (Carey, Harrity, Dimmit, 2005, p. 305). This study will seek to verify whether that assertion is true, and if so, to what extent. Since it is more likely that teachers will notice any improvements in the student's learning, capabilities, and attitudes, this study will seek to ascertain whether the perception that counselors are indeed a benefit to the overall improvement of student's education as seen through the eyes of the teachers. The study will concentrate on verifying those perceptions in regards to the ASCA National Model and whether that model has had the desired effects on the counselors, the students and the teachers that have implemented it.

This study directly complements the ASCA national standards accountability measure which states, "Program Audit: School counseling teams audit their program yearly to review progress and design next steps for improving their program" (ASCA, 2006).

These audits allow for analysis on how programs are improving the school educational environment, and if improvements are not discernable then the audit can be used to emphasize areas where there is room for improvement.

The ASCA recently stated that the organization "endorses a comprehensive, developmental school counseling program as articulated in the ASCA National Model, so that school counselors can better assist all students to achieve and negotiate the demands of the 21st century (ASCA, 2005). This study is expected to provide data to determine whether the standards set by the ASCA National Model has had the desired effects on school counselors and programs that it was meant to serve. If it has not had those desired effects, it is hoped that this study will also be able to discern that and perhaps provide data that will rectify that situation.

Literature Review

Available literature concerning education, teaching and the many different methods of learning in schools is as abundant as it is varied. Every expert seems to have an opinion that is different from every other expert, or if it agrees with someone else, then they have a slightly different take on the current educational circumstances in the United States.

With all the buzz surrounding the improvements in the way education is viewed, one area has gone through a complete metamorphosis. That area is the field of school counseling.

The American School Counselors Association (ASCA) is the governing body of the professionals who are, or who seek to be employed as school counselors. This organization is cognizant of the fact that there is a new movement in education that seeks to ascertain accountability from all participants. It does not matter if those participants are students, teachers, administrators, or coaches and counselors. All participants are held to certain standards, even school counselors.

In the early '80s, schools were facing a national crisis. There was much talk about school reform, and a Nation at Risk (Gardner, 1983) became the most quoted and read national publication, not only by educators, but by business and community people from the private and public sector as well. Nowhere in this document were school counselors mentioned as being a part of the solution to the major problems in the schools" (Schwalle-Giddis, Maat, Park, 2003, p. 170).

The problem was that not only did many school counselors not even know or understand to what standards they were being held, they were also not being utilized to their capabilities. Oftentimes the standards, and the objectives for school counselors would change from district to district, state to state, and school to school. There were no set national standards.

That began to change in 2001 when the ASCA Governing Board voted to establish national standards that would clarify exactly what was expected from their members. According to the ASCA the National Model was to provide "A Framework for School Counseling Programs (2003) was created by the American School Counselor Association to provide One Vision ~ One Voice for the profession of school counseling and to align school counseling programs with education reform movements of standards and accountability" (ASCA National Model, 2006). To accomplish this objective a committee was formed and within a two-year timeframe introduced the model. Much has been written about the model during the ensuing years leading to the wide range of literature concerning the new standards.

The ASCA approached the creation of the National Model with a clarity that is best described in a 2003 paper from ASCA. The assertion was that "School counseling programs are collaborative efforts benefiting students, parents, teachers, administrators and the overall community. School counseling programs should be an integral part of students' daily educational environment, and school counselors should be partners in student achievement" (American, 2003, p. 165).

In order to achieve that partnership, the ASCA National Model was created to address the overall situation with four distinct categories. Those categories include; advocacy, collaboration, leadership and systemic change. The model itself is also broken down into four different areas. Those areas include; the foundation, a delivery system, a management system and accountability.

The foundation is composed of a mission statement, beliefs and philosophy, and three domains which are; academic, career, personal/social. The management system is comprised of agreements, a created Advisory Council, use of data and action plans, use of time and calendars. The delivery system is the school guidance curriculum, individual student planning, responsive services and system support. Lastly, the accountability takes into account the results reports, school counselor performance evaluation and the program audit.

When perusing the components of the foundation the reader discovers that there are two primary questions being asked. Those questions are; "What do we believe about all students? And What should every student know and be able to do? The belief and philosophy of the ASCA program not only asks those two questions but agrees that "every student deserves the opportunity to learn about educational options available and that students who are struggling deserve additional intervention" (ASCA, 2006).

ASCA had a daunting task in front of it. Not only were the members of ASCA in need of a set of rules, standards and objectives in order to put forth their own best foot, they were also in need of a complete makeover in order to be perceived as integral cogs in the educational wheel, instead of sideline standers in the educational arena. ASCA was interested in establishing a set of standards that would assist all counselors in getting up to speed on the changes that had taken place during the years preceding 2001.

The ASCA did have some working knowledge of accountability especially since, "the need for and importance of accountability for outcomes has been stressed in every decade since the 1920s" (Gysber, Henderson, 2005).

Another ASCA article states, "almost 40 years ago, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision Experimental Designs Committee (1967) admonished counselors for having taken for granted for the past 10-15 years their importance in education in the United States. It described their practices as being based on "faith and theory" rather than on any demonstrated effectiveness" (Sabella, 2006, p. vii). The article went on to reiterate what Gysber had stated and that was "accountability is not a new phenomenon; it has been of concern almost from the very beginning of the institutionalization of guidance and counseling in the schools" (Sabella, p. 412).

A somewhat differing viewpoint from the same time period was found in a paper published by the ACES-ASCA in 1966 that outlined a description of what a school counselor should be most concerned with in a school environment. "In 1966 the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision and the American School Counselor Association published their joint statement concerning the role and function of the school counselor, in that statement the importance of the role of the counselor as consultant was strongly emphasized" (ACES- ASCA, 1966). The environment during the 60's then was that the school counselor was a consultant, or someone who did not actively participate in the management of the school, or the programs offered by the school.

Instead, when a student needed help in regards to future choices, ie; choosing a college, the counselor was there to consult with. Whether, at that time, the counselor was considered as someone would could manufacture an individual educational program (if they actually had them at that time) was probably not in the counselor's forte.

A study published in 2007 suggested that "The ASCA National Model can help school counselors think proactively about how they can best serve the students in their schools, and it contains ideas and tools for developing comprehensive school counseling programs that use the current best practices in the field" (Dimmit, Carey, 2007, p. 227).This study will attempt to discern whether those standards have been met. If they have not, then perhaps modifications can be made. If they have then the study will have at least verified that the program was successful.

The perception in the 1980's as compared to the 1960's could be said that there were plenty of individuals during that particular time that felt that counselors had little, if anything to do with solving school education problems. Comparing this laisse faire attitude towards counselors then, with the far more intense attitude currently shown towards education in general, and counselors in specific should lead to some interesting conclusions. Further literature review will also provide a history of, and information on, the reasons for developing the ASCA model, and identify the individuals or leaders pioneering this model in the educational context.

That the National Model has had influence on school counselors and the educational environment is self-evident, especially if considering the fact that other groups have followed the lead set by the ASCA by issuing their own particular set of standards. These organizations include national, state and even local entities interested in wielding influence in educational programs. One state (Wisconsin) even issued its own National Model with the following standards:

Is comprehensive in scope

Reaches every student

Is preventative in design

Is developmental in nature

Is an integral part of the total educational program for student success

Selects measurable student competencies based on local need in the areas of academic, career, and personal/social domains

Has a delivery system that includes school guidance curriculum, individual planning, responsive services and system support

Is implemented by a credentialed school counselor

Is conducted in collaboration with all stakeholders

Uses data to drive program decisions

Monitors student progress

Measures both process and outcome results and analyzes critical data elements

Shares successes with stakeholders (Burmeister, 2007).

Comparing the two sets of standards is likely to lead to additional fodder for the educational cannon, but the real key in discovering whether programs are working or not is based not only on perception but on reality as well. There will always be methods to measure effectiveness of implementing particular programs as there will always be supporters and detractors based on those measures.

A study published in 2007 suggested that "The ASCA National Model can help school counselors think proactively about how they can best serve the students in their schools, and it contains ideas and tools for developing comprehensive school counseling programs that use the current best practices in the field" (Dimmit, Carey, 2007, p. 227). Thinking proactively is especially important in these days when students are bringing backpacks filled with weapons to school and then are using them, purchasing drugs is as easy as going to the local convenience store, and premarital sex is common.

Students today are faced with a myriad of choice and oftentimes choose a direction that can lead to trouble and despair. Many of these problems were addressed in previous generations but the need to address them again is continual. The school counselors see many of these problems on a daily basis. Additionally, problems associated with school counseling have included: "lack of basic philosophy, poor integration, insufficient student access, inadequate guidance for some students, lack of counselor accountability, and failure to utilize other resources" (Hart, Jacobi, 1992).

It was imperative therefore to develop a consistent and national approach for school counselors in order to assist their efforts in being effective. Not only are the counselors key cogs in the development of the students experiencing problems of one sort or the other, but the school counselors can also help in the area of educational studies. "In this age of educational reform, there is a need to increase academic achievement at all levels and within all programs" (Studer, Oberman, 2006, p. 82).

It seems that everyone involved in education is working for the betterment of the student, whether this actually turns out to be a good thing or not remains to be seen, but at least the concentration level is there. This same focus affects counselors as well as teachers and administrators. According to the National Model counselors can also be part of school counseling teams.

School counseling teams create Classroom Guidance Curriculum and Closing the Gap (Intentional Guidance) Action Plans to indicate who will do what, when, where and how often" (ASCA, 2005). Additionally, counselors can also be used as assets in the event that any catastrophic circumstances occur at the school. The ASCA lists a number of items that counselors should be well aware of, as well as efficient in use. The list is especially helpful during times of crisis and stress and includes:

try to keep routines as normal as possible limit exposure to television and the news be honest with kids and share as much information as the can handle listen to kids fears and concerns reassure kids that the world is a good place to be rebuild and reaffirm attachments and relationships

Equally important is that the counselor stay cool and collected, remembering that the students will be looking to the adults for direction. This was certainly not applicable in previous decades since mass shootings in schools is a relatively new phenomenon. One recent study showed that, "increasing recognition of the impact of nonacademic barriers to learning has important implications for the role of school counselors" (Walsh, Barrett, DePaul, 2007, p. 370).

The number of situations that can occur in a school or educational environment gun the gamut of creativity and understanding, but today's school counselors have to be ready for almost anything. "The emergence of the "new morbidities" (e.g., sexual abuse, domestic and community violence, poverty, drug abuse, and homelessness) in family and community environments poses significant threats to children's well-being and constitutes significant barriers to learning" (Walsh et al., p. 371). According to the National Model, counselors need to be effective in eliminating those barriers to learning in order to assist every student in the quest for knowledge.