The history and cultural significance of cosmetics worldwide

¶ … Status of the Global Cosmetics Industry

Throughout history, men and women have sought to improve their appearance through the use of various lotions, creams and other preparations that typically fall under the umbrella terms make-up and cosmetics today. Beginning around the mid-19th century, the cosmetics industry gained momentum and has since become a multi-billion dollar global enterprise. The early use of make-up, though, was restricted to various natural ingredients that were used to enhance and highlight the appearance of both men and women, but that has changed in substantive ways today and an enormous variety of ingredients, some of which are not particularly healthy or safe for use, go in to the manufacture of cosmetics. Nevertheless, the use of make-up remains a virtually universal practice in many cultures, including the United States, and it is reasonable to suggest that this industry will continue to grow in the future. To determine how, where and why the use of make-up has assumed the popular levels it enjoys today, this paper provides a review of the relevant peer-reviewed, scholarly and popular literature concerning the history of make-up, what types of make-up are commonly used, and some guidelines and tips from make-up experts. A discussion of some safety procedures that should be taken into account when using make-up is followed by a summary of the research and salient findings in the conclusion.

Review and Discussion

Since antiquity, humans have used a variety of lotions, creams, and other preparations to enhance the appearance of their face and bodies in an effort to conform to the prevailing aesthetic standards of their day and confirm their respective social positions. Very early uses of cosmetics, though, were more forthright in their purpose. For example, Persaud (2005) notes that, "Men are instinctively drawn to attractive, feminine women because they really are more fertile. No wonder a multibillion pound global cosmetics industry has developed, by either mimicking or exaggerating these desirable characteristics. The first cosmetic, after all, was a smear of red clay across a Stone Age woman's cheek, simulating the flush of ovulation that marks a woman's peak of fertility" (p. 49). As Cavendish points out, though, not everyone approved of the use of make-up during ancient times. According to Cavendish, "Cosmetic preparations are common in man parts of the world for ornamental and also for magical and religious reasons. The Old Testament writers generally disapproved of cosmetics and the elaborate beauty aids of ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome were condemned as pagan and immoral by the early Christians" (p. 623).

Notwithstanding these religious imprecations to the contrary, make-up remained popular in many cultures around the world and gained additional impetus in the Middle Ages when European actors realized they needed some help to overcome nature's limitations in portraying their characters, especially when theatrical productions were presented indoors. In this regard, Buckridge advises, "In the earliest days of the theatre and down through the Elizabethan Age, make-up of the sort we have today was practically unknown. Playing as they did in the light hours of the day, actors had no need for more than an occasional wig or false moustache. But when the theatre moved indoors and performances were illuminated by the sickly light of candles, it became a necessity" (p. 375). The need for make-up was related to the nature of the poor quality of the lighting available which adversely affected the natural color of human skin and caused it to appear sallow and wan; moreover, this primitive lighting caused actors' eyes to appear smaller and their faces to become paler than they were in reality and did not provide them with the definition they felt was needed for an effective performance (Buckridge). Make-up, then, was just what the doctor ordered and its use become increasingly popular among the theatrical crowd. As Buckridge points out, "To combat this light and to project their features to their audiences, they began to use paint and powder" (p. 375). The modern cosmetics industry, though, can trace is origins to the mid-nineteenth century Europe and the U.S. from which time advertising aimed at women became prominent (Black, 2004). In this regard, Berger and Huntington (2003) note that, "Modern cosmetics were first developed in Europe and the cosmetics market there is already crowded with super brand names like Lancome, Chanel, and Clarins" (p. 78). Likewise, Pointer (2006) advises that, "Don't think for one minute that beauty products are new. Roman women had face packs involving 10 eggs and 12 narcissus bulbs. In the Middle Ages, white face paint made by putting pure wheat in water for 15 days, then grinding, blending, straining it, letting it crystallize and evaporate was popular. Liniments of vinegar, something called stavesacre, honey, sulphur and oil, would destroy mice in your wig in the 18th Century" (p. 16). Indeed, women (and to a lesser extent, men) all over the world have sought to beautify themselves from prehistory to the dawn of the multi-billion-dollar global cosmetics industry today (Pointer).

The emergence of a new business model that was based upon the marketing of beauty products, and the treatment of customers has been influenced by a number of social trends since the 19th century, though. The marketing of cosmetics received further impetus during the early 20th century from the growing motion picture industry, due in large part to the fact that many Western women wanted to emulate the appearance of their favorite movie stars. In this regard, Otnes and Pleck (2003) point out that, "The impact of Hollywood stars and studio publicity photographs changed women's attitudes toward makeup. Once only prostitutes and actresses used rouge and colored their lips" (p. 37).

By the 1920s, the use of cosmetics in the form of mascara, lipstick, rouge, and nail polish, among others, became an increasingly popular way for women to express their individuality and to improve their appearance; however, during this early period, such use was still regarded in some circles as being a fairly rebellious act from a social perspective (Otnes & Pleck). Even this prevailing perception, though, changed over time and women enthusiastically sought out what would be termed the beauty "makeover," a complete overhaul-type of process that is described by Otnes and Pleck as being ". . . A project of magical transformation of both the face and the body -- a woman could change her self-concept and even her personality. In other words, she could reinvent herself" (p. 40).

Not surprisingly, marketing efforts that have been designed to promote cosmetics also became more prominent during this period and a growing number of advertisements for cosmetics such as Helena Rubenstein and Max Factor were developed in order to convince customers that their products would enhance their true selves rather than simply concealing it from others (Otnes & Pleck). For example, following this period there was a clear development of a formalized training process which begins to treat the beauty worker as a professional with recourse to formal qualifications and a code of professional standards and ethics. "Despite these developments, the beauty and cosmetics industry did not become a fully recognizable, commercialized, mass industry until the 1920s and 1930s. Perhaps only after the Second World War does the industry actually consolidate itself into the cosmetics industry that is commonly perceived today" (Black, 2004, p. 37). This point is also made by Hutchings (2000), who reports that it was during World War II that the definition and portrayal modern femininity experienced some fundamental shifts. According to Hutchins, during the war, "Women's duty was now seen as patriotic and thus beauty and sexuality were submerged somewhat beneath boiler suits, head scarfs, trousers, and Victory suits made out of flour bags. Practicality was the keynote, yet women were still encouraged to be beautiful in order to keep up the morale of the fighting men" (p. 44).

Following the end of World War II, though, practicality was replaced by a new sense of style and flair and the cosmetics industry took off in major ways due in large part to the "New Look of Dior" in 1947 (Hutchings). This shift was not entirely attributable to the aggressive marketing that was taking place during the mid-20th century, but it apparent that the cosmetics marketers were successful at creating a need rather than just satisfying one. For example, Hutchings adds that, "In 1950s and 1960s advertising, beauty and youthfulness were more than ever before the two catchwords most used in the evocation of modern femininity. Although beauty is not a new component of femininity, advertising has played an instrumental role in redefining its meaning. Thus the notion of beauty as a natural given was dispelled by advertising's promise that beauty could be achieved by any woman with the use of the right product" (p. 44).

From the perspective of Hutchings, many American women were actually shamed into using make-up in order to appear "adequate" and "acceptable" in terms of the prevailing views of what constituted femininity by marketers who were desperate to sell a bewildering array of cosmetic products. In this regard, Hutchings adds that, "In order to sell an increasingly vast array of perfumes, skin lotions, lipsticks, foundation, mascara, deodorants, talcum powder, shampoo, breath fresheners, soap and hair sprays, advertisers attempted to create a powerful sense of female inadequacy and shame over natural body processes, functions and odors" (p. 44). Certainly, social conscious people in general and women in particular during this period in American history wanted to avoid even the perception of being less than feminine and would seek to avoid this perception based on the potential social backfire that might otherwise result. For instance, Hutchings emphasizes that, "Bodily consciousness and disdain of natural functions had been around since at least the 1920s, but it seemed to reach new peaks of hysteria in the post-war period. Having body hair, bad breath, wrinkled skin, lackluster hair, or perspiration odor apparently could have dire social consequences" (p. 44). Today, the marketing of cosmetics builds upon these early initiatives and perceptions as well as taking advantage of the opportunities available through online and other telecommunications media to promote the message that their products are superior to the others available in the market.

Furthermore, the types of make-up that are available today are staggering in their variety and purpose. Indeed, as Lewis (1996) emphasizes, "Cosmetics run the gamut from eye shadow to deodorant sprays. And consumers' concerns and questions are just as varied as the products themselves" (p. 6). For the theatrical market, make-up is generally categorized as either being "straight" or "character" in nature. In this regard, Gassner and Barber (1941) advise that, "By straight we mean the simplest type applied to correct the actor's own skin tone and to make him or her more attractive. Character make-up refers to all other types in which the object is to change completely the actor's appearance. For the straight, comparatively simple make-up materials are needed; but for character he may use not only all materials manufactured specifically for the purpose, but anything else that his imagination can put to use" (p. 376). In addition, Gassner and Barber provide a useful overview of the different types of make-up that are commonly used in both the theatrical industry as well as by women (and increasingly, men) around the world and these different types of make-up and the uses are described further in Table 1 below.

Table 1

A Few Different Types of Make-Up

Make-Up Type

Description/Purpose

Cold cream

This cream, along with mineral oil, olive oil, and vaseline, are used to cleanse the skin before the make-up is put on, to protect it, and to aid in the removal of the make-up. Any quality of oil may be used as long as it is capable of doing the job.

Rouge

This make-up product comes in two forms, moist and dry. Of the two, the moist is the more useful and gives the more natural effect; however, the dry is useful for retouching once the make-up has been powdered.

Eyebrow pencils

Sometimes called dermatographs, eyebrow pencils come in red, brown, black, and blue. They are medium-hard grease paints in pencil form and are used on the eyes and eyebrows.

Eye shadow

This make-up product is applied to the eyelids and beneath eyebrows to make the user's eyes more distinctive and attractive in appearance.

Face powders

These come in a range of shades designed to match the colors of foundation paints. They differ from ordinary face powders in that they are based on rice-powder, which is more absorbent and clings better.

Liquid make-up

This is used in coloring the arms, shoulders, legs, etc. In cases where those parts are exposed and there is a noticeable difference in tone. It is essentially made from a combination of powder, glycerine, and water.

Mascara

This make-up used to lengthen, alter the color, and thicken eyelashes. Mascara is available in a number of colors such as black and brown; however it is also marketed in brighter colors including varying shades of blue, pink, and purple.

Source: Gassner & Barber, pp. 376-377; Read, S.I. (2007, May 14).

Today, it would seem that many women have accepted the use of make-up as being part and parcel of their daily routine. For instance, Barbieri (2007) reports that, "A woman's handbag is, quite rightly, a mystery. But within the folds of fluff and amid the wraps of paper that register phone numbers of unimaginable importance, there is something of such value that it could be described as the beating heart of the handbag: the make-up bag" (p. 52). The reasons for this widespread acceptance are varied, of course, but it would be disingenuous to suggest that many women use make-up for reasons other than to improve their appearance, but there are in fact some other reasons involved as well that directly relate to how women feel about themselves. According to Barbieri, "In terms of status in among the cosmetics, the lipstick is queen. Lipsticks have had entire books dedicated to them. Next is mascara. These are the two items most women say they cannot live without. It's nonsense on one level, of course, but the power of lipstick, and how it makes a woman feel, must never be trivialized. From the silly everyday occurrence -- the woman having to 'put her lippy on' before a relatively difficult exchange -- to the enormous impact make-up and lipstick can have on a woman's psyche, there's more going on than just coloring in one's face" (p. 52).

A survey of four women conducted by Baden provides some insights into what compels some women to use more make-up than others. A recapitulation of this survey is provided in Table 2 below.

Table 2

Essential Cosmetics and the Reasons for Their Use

Survey Respondent/Age

Summary/Key Points

Millie Kendall, 28 years

It's not that I always wear make-up but I'm an avid collector. In the same way that people get into collecting furniture or jewellery, I need to have the whole range of any new brand on the market, even if I probably won't wear any of it. I like having loads of it and admiring the colors. My huge collection gives me the opportunity to express myself in any way I want. I was into punk rock when I first started wearing make-up - I put a bit of black stuff around my eyes to be rebellious. It wasn't until I was older that I realized how make-up can actually make you look better. I focus on different parts of my face at different times. Four years ago, I was really into blusher; now it's all lip balms. . . . I've got so much I use the third bedroom as a make-up room. It's got a full-length mirror, an armchair and two wooden tables stacked with make-up. It's organized like a shop. I find it hard to get my friends out of my make-up room because they love to hang out there.

Claire Gallaphant, 27 years

I always wear make-up when I go out, even if it's just to the local shops. But if I'm having a really lazy day at home, I often don't bother. My boyfriend reckons I look pretty much the same with or without it. I started messing around with my older sister's make-up when I was about 15. I used to wear really cheap, tacky foundation and I was really into eyeshadow and mascara. I remember wearing a horrible pink lipstick with a blue sheen during the New Romantic days in the early Eighties. We weren't allowed to wear make-up at school but we used to see what we could get away with. I'd insist that I wasn't wearing lipstick although my mouth was usually bright pink. . . . I always have lip gloss on. I have at least one beauty night every week and I love painting my nails and toenails.

Sarah Cooke, 28 years

Buying make-up is great therapy. If it's raining or I'm feeling down in the dumps, I buy myself a new lipstick or mascara and it cheers me up. I get a kick out of something new: when the sales assistant gets it out of the box and shows it to me, it feels like a real treat. Whenever I walk into a department store, I can't resist taking a look at the beauty counters to see what's new. I always keep things which I used to wear and really liked at the time for sentimental reasons even if I'll never wear them again. Like perfume, make-up can bring back memories. . . . Within reason, make-up is an affordable luxury. Even if you're on a low salary, you can feel special by treating yourself to something really nice instead of blowing your budget on a new outfit. I remember going to a party wearing a new lip gloss and it felt as if I'd changed my look.

Conclusion

The research showed that make-up has been used for thousands of years and probably dates to prehistoric times when women would use natural ingredients to enhance their appearance in terms of their suitability for mating that were directly related to the survival of the human species. Since that time, though, the manufacture and application of make-up has experienced some profound changes, with a mind-boggling array of cosmetic products available around the world today. The research also showed that while some make-up continues to use natural ingredients, there has been an increasing use of artificial ingredients, some of which are not particularly healthy and others that are downright dangerous to use. Although make-up is used extensively in the theatre and motion picture industry, by far the largest use of make-up is by women -- and increasingly men -- who want to improve their physical appearance and enhance their individual sense of self-esteem in the process. While the research also showed that some of the demand for make-up that took place following the end of World War II was due to marketers creating a need, the need is very real today and many women accept its use as a normal part of their everyday lives. In the final analysis, it is reasonable to conclude that properly used, make-up can truly enhance an individual's appearance rather than merely concealing physical imperfections, and its judicious use is supported by women's health and beauty advocates the world over.