Protestant Ethic and the Evolution

¶ … Protestant Ethic" and the Evolution of Capitalism

Maximilian Weber was one of the most influential German political economists and sociologists. He began his career at the University of Berlin and later worked at other universities throughout Germany. He was one of Germany's negotiators that the treaty of Versailles and also played a role in drafting the Weimar constitution (Weber, Marianne 1988). The following will explore Weber's contribution to theories on the development of capitalism. The primary source for argument will be Weber's most controversial work, " The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism," written in 1905.

Weber's key thesis is that religion is largely responsible for the different cultures and economic systems of Europe and the orient. He argued that the Protestant movement, particularly movements such as the Calvinists and Puritans, led to the development of capitalism, bureaucracy, and a rational legal state prevalent in modern western society. His works are collectively known as the 'Weber Thesis' and forms one of the major tenants of political science.

Life Influences

In order to understand a man in his writing it is important to explore his background and the influences in is life that led to his viewpoints. Weber was born in Erfurt in Thuringia, Germany. He was the eldest of seven children born to Max Weber senior, a prominent politician and civil servant (Weber, Marianne 1988). Weber's home as a child was immersed in politics and he often found himself in the midst of prominent German scholars and other public figures. This upbringing undoubtedly had an affect on the viewpoints found in Weber's later writing. Politics played a major role in family culture.

Weber was well versed at an early age in the works of scholars such as Homer, Virgil, and Cicero. He loved to study philosophy and history. In 1882 he decided to pursue a degree in Law at the University of Heidelberg (Weber, Marianne 1988). This was the same university that served as his father's, almamater. Weber passed an examination which is equivalent to the bar exam in both British and American legal systems. He earned his doctorate of history in 1889 and qualified to hold a German professorship.

Weber was a prolific writer at the beginning of his career, but after his father died and 1894 he became solitary and eventually spent some time in a sanatorium (Weber, Marianne 1988). He did not write again until 1902. In 1904 he wrote his most controversial work, "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. " Subsequent years were spent studying the effects of cultures and religions and their influence on economic systems (Iannaccone, 1998).

Weber became a prominent political figure and in 1912 he tried to organize a leftist political party that would combine social-democrats and liberals into one singular political force. However, this attempt was not successful because many liberals feared the socialistic revolutionary ideals of the time (Mommsen, 1992).

During the First World War, Weber served as director of army hospitals in Heidelberg. In 1915 in 1916 he sat on commissions that tried to retain German supremacy in Belgium and Poland (Kaesler, 1989). Weber's war years had a dramatic impact on his political views. One can see changes in his viewpoint from the beginning of the war until the end. It is important to realize that "The Protestant Ethic" was written before his wartime experiences and the turmoil that was a part of his occupation after the war. Weber is considered one of the key founders of modern sociology, although his works were primarily from a historical perspective.

The Connection between Capitalism and Calvinism

Weber's doctoral thesis centered on the economics of an agrarian society. In The Protestant Ethic Weber demonstrated how the goals of certain Protestant denominations, such as Calvinism, had shifted towards a rational means of economic gain as a way of expressing their blessings (Bendix 1977). Weber's goal was to find the reasons for the development of different cultural paths in the west and east. However, he wished to do this without judging or placing value on them as others had done. In doing so, Weber hoped to define the distinctive elements of western civilization. Weber argued that Calvinist religious ideas were a major source of inspiration on social innovations and the economic system of Europe in the United States. However, he was cautious to note that these were not the only factors that led to their development. He only wished to support the idea that they made a major impact on the development of the systems. The following will support these ideas.

Weber argued that religious devotion is typically accompanied by the universal rejection of mundane or worldly affairs in favor of more spiritual pursuits. Religious devotion often tells followers to give up a life whose sole purpose is economic pursuit. However, this was not the case with the Protestant movement. The reasoning behind this was a key factor in Weber's work. Weber wished to discover what made the Protestant movement different from other religions in this respect. Weber defines the spirit of capitalism as any ideas or activities that favor the rational pursuit of economic gain (Bendix.1977). In Weber tells us that this ideal is not limited to western culture.

Weber refers to certain individuals that he calls "heroic entrepreneurs." These heroic entrepreneurs lead the march into a capitalistic society by courageously pursuing business endeavors even though all of the conditions may not be right. However, this group, although enthusiastic, cannot establish a new economic order based on capitalistic ideals by themselves. If society is not ready to accept their new ideas, then enthusiasm alone will have little impact.

There were several social ideologies which prevented these individuals from advancing capitalistic economic systems. The first of these identified by Weber is that individuals wish to obtain maximum profit with minimum effort. There was a prevalent ideal, especially among those of upper society that work was an unworthy burden that should be avoided. There was a general consensus that work should not exceed that which was enough to provide a modest lifestyle. The pursuit of more than what one needed was considered sinful by many religious orders. The society promoted laziness as the preferred lifestyle. An attitude of excess and laziness prevailed in feudal society.

Weber argued that in order for capitalism to become in a societal institution the lifestyle of the peasantry and aristocrats had to be altered so that it would be more fitting to the ideals of capitalism. Capitalism could not originate in the ideals of individuals but could only come into existence as a result of cultural changes and the works of all groups of society. Society had to be ripe for the ideals of the heroic entrepreneurs to take hold.

After defining the spirit of capitalism Weber argues that the roots of capitalism can be found in the religious ideals of the reformation. There are other contemporaries of Weber that agreed with this idea including William Petty, Henry Thomas Buckle, and John Keats (Bendix.1977). Weber demonstrated that certain types of Protestant philosophy, particularly Calvinism, were compatible with the pursuit of economic gain and worldlier. Calvinism placed the economic pursuits in a positive spirit and good moral light. Weber is quick to point out that economic pursuit was not the goal of these new religious philosophies, but rather a byproduct of it.

Calvinistic ideas praised good work and promoted the idea that everything one does in life should praise God. It did not matter what one's station life or life pursuit was, they had to treat it as if every moment were devoted to God. If one was meant to be a Farmer, then they should treat their daily work as if it were a prayer of praise. One should do the best that they could do in everything that they pursued in life. This work ethic was exactly what Weber meant by "The Protestant Ethic."

Weber argued that Catholicism was more tolerant towards the acquisition of worldly goods and economic gain. Lavish expenditure and wealth was ingrained in the hierarchical structure of the Catholic Church. In order to gain position in the Catholic Church one had to usurp someone else, often by proving one's social status throughout worldly appearances. Contenders often had to jockey for position by showing their lavish success. Wealth in was not only tolerated by the Catholic Church, it was expected by it. Catholics believed in the earthly power to forgive sin, an idea that would be considered blasphemous by the Protestants.

If one looks at the attraction of the Catholic Church to wealth it would appear as if the Catholic Church were more ready for capitalism then the Protestant church. However, when one looks at the way wealth was used within the Catholic Church it soon becomes apparent that wealth was used to separate status and social class. The Catholic Church was protectionist in its attitude toward its own wealth. The power of the Catholic Church was in its wealth and possessions. Any one who tried to gain enough power and wealth would be considered a threat to the power of the church and was therefore quickly deposed of their wealth.

Weber proposed that even though Catholics tolerated a greater display of outward wealth, Protestant doctrines asked the followers to concentrate on mundane pursuits. It also asks its followers to accept a lower station in life without a hierarchical structure to force the issue. There were no examples of upward mobility or examples of extravagance to follow. The Protestant faith in promoted a pride in one's work and the "work and Save" ethic. The members were self-motivated, not forced into submission by the Church. This was a key difference between these two philosophies. Weber claimed that this attitude was much more productive than the Catholic idea of wealth attainment. The Calvinists had a word which meant ones calling, or duty on earth. The term beruf means total dedication to the calling that one has given you in life. Weber argued that this work ethic led to higher economic productivity and Protestant communities.

Catholic society promoted the constant movement and striving for upward mobility. No one was satisfied where they were and many saw their current position as simply a stopping point on their way to higher and better positions. If they felt that a position was below them they may not put as much effort into it because they always had their eye on a bigger prize. The Catholic work ethic promoted the idea of never being satisfied. This contrasted with the Protestant idea which promoted satisfaction with one's work, regardless of how lowly it might seem. Weber felt that the most important element in productivity within the community was the amount of dedication that the worker felt towards their task.

In the Protestant community held the conviction that excess expenditure and lavish display was considered sinful. Protestant communities were thrifty as well as more productive than Catholic communities. Another key difference between the Protestant community and the Catholic community is that the Catholic Church felt they had the authority to forgive sin. The Protestant church did not believe that sins could be forgiven by man. Sins on earth could only be forgiven by a higher power therefore the person had to stay faithful in all of their dealings, including modest consumption and hard work in order to receive their just reward in the end. The thrifty lifestyle of the Protestants meant that they earned and saved more than Catholics, who had a tendency to spend it as soon as they earned it.

Weber used this difference in ideology as the basis for his theory that capitalist accumulation was born directly out of the Protestant work ethic. Protestant churches did not condone the acquisition of wealth, but rather indirectly promoted it through its dedication to one's purpose in life and philosophy of thriftiness. Without this change in the society it would have been difficult for the accumulation of wealth take place in the lower classes. Catholicism promoted extravagance and wealth, but only for the upper classes. It could even be said that it took a predatory stance on the lower classes using them to feed the wealth of the aristocrats. Weber felt these changes that allowed the lower class to accumulate wealth were necessary in order to promote the idea of capitalism.

The acquisition of wealth was later legitimized and born out of the idea of greed. Weber considered greed to be the true creator of capitalist society. However, many of his contemporaries felt that the capitalistic society created greed, rather than represented a byproduct of it. The Protestant work ethic set the stage for the cumulative wealth. However, society still had to go through many changes before the idea of capitalism could develop. The structures of the Catholic hierarchy would not allow the growth of capitalism. Those that were in control would not allow others to achieve wealth and status. Under this structure the system was more likely to revert to a feudal state rather than give rise to capitalism.

The Protestant work ethic and encouraged members of the secular world to develop their own enterprises and to engage in trade. It encouraged them to pursue the accumulation of wealth and to use it wisely for investment purposes. This change encompassed a large portion of mass society. Under the Protestant work ethic the worker had the opportunity to attain wealth that would not have been allowed under a feudal system. The common person now had the ability to achieve upward mobility, as long as they were careful not to outwardly display it. They were free to save and work in order to make themselves a better life. There was no outside forced to strip them of it if they became too powerful. The Protestant movement gave the common people a chance that they had never had in the past. It was a stark contrast to the life in a Catholic community where such an effort would have been squashed. The Protestant movement gained ground largely because they gave the individual freedoms that they had never experienced in the past.

Individualism and a focus on one's personal connection with God and God's plan for the individual's life was a key element in the ability of capitalism to develop. Catholicism was much more institutionalized and focused on the church rather than individual relationships with God. The Protestant movement focused on individual spirituality. The individual no longer had to rely on a religious entity to achieve salvation, to obtain education, or to interpret the scriptures for them. This closer connection to God gave the individual power. This newfound power was the key to the rise in popularity of the Protestant movement.

The Protestant movement directly preached against greed for profit with minimal effort. Instead it promoted an ethic of hard work and a humble life. It destroyed the idea that one never has enough and should continue to strive for the next highest level in social status. Protestant ideas promoted the idea that one should be happy where they are as long as they are following their own calling. Rather than doing the minimal, the Protestant ethic doing the best job that you can do because everything one does in their life should be to glorify God. The focus of the Protestant religion is not on self and worldly attainment of wealth, but on fulfilling ones purpose of one's destiny. This is a key difference between the philosophies of Protestantism and Catholicism.

In another argument that Weber proposed is that the common person had difficulty adjusting to this new religious worldview. They were used to looking to authority figures for signs that they were living their lives correctly. However, the Protestant movement did not give them an authority structure to which they could turn and be certain that they were on the correct religious path. They needed signs that they were saved and that what they were doing met the approval of the powers that be.

Weber feels that certain members of society, such as Martin Luther fully understood this new religious philosophy. However, the common person needed a physical sign that they were saved. Society began to look for other signs that they were saved; money and achievement of wealth became the symbol. Soon became a common belief that if one were successful economically it was an outward sign that God was pleased with the work that you did. Worldly success became a measure of salvation. If one did not achieve economic success in their endeavors then they could assume that what they were doing was not right in the site of God. Therefore, economic success became a measure of spiritual success. One can see how this idea would easily develop into the capital market system.

The Protestant movement gave the common person a way to have a direct connection to God. Pursuing God's purpose of was no longer limited to the clergy. Anyone could be considered a servant of God regardless of their occupation or trade. Weber saw the Protestant ethic as a paradox. The paradox was that one should forgo worldly possessions and the outward appearance of extravagance for a more inwardly spiritual path. However, the individual was compelled by the same religion to follow their secular trade with as much fervor and zeal as possible. Ironically, a person living like this would be more likely to accumulate more wealth than those who did not pursue their trade was such zeal.

The real irony in is that the Protestant religion, particularly Calvinism, forbade actually using any of the gains earned through a person's pursuit. The purchasing of luxuries or items to make one's life easier was considered sinful. Even donations to the church were limited to the due to the rejection of the use of icons. Donating excessively to the church was seen as idol worship and directly in opposition to the commandment that one should worship only one God. One could donate to the poor or to a certain charity, but this was frowned upon because a lack of worldly success was seen as a combination of laziness and Divine disfavor. There was little that a person could do once they achieved the wealth that was a result of their faithfulness.

This is one of the key paradoxes that are addressed in Weber's work. Weber argued that this paradox was resolved by the investment of money. This was almost the only legitimate use of one's money that was allowed. Weber argues that the need to invest once money gave an extreme boost to the idea of capitalism. The Protestant religion was the basis of the capitalist society in Weber's viewpoint. Weber also believed that in time the religious doctrines that drove capitalism slipped from society, leaving pure capitalistic ideas in their wake. Weber used the writings of Benjamin Franklin as his example. The writings of Franklin emphasize frugality, hard work, and thriftiness, but had none of the spiritual overtones that were present in earlier Protestant works.

Weber attributes the success of mass production at least in part to the Protestant work ethic. The Catholic Church promoted extravagance and luxury. However, as long as these items when favor it was difficult for individuals to accept uniform products, such as clothes and furniture. Industrialization created the need for greater uniformity. Society had to be willing to accept these new forms of fashion and style. The Protestant work ethic ordained that luxury was an outward sign of wealth; therefore standardized, uniform products were favored. Uniformity gained its place in society because it was a sign that one was not trying to place themselves above anyone else. It meant that they were satisfied with their station in life and did not wish to do anything other than God's calling. This aspect of the Protestant movement allowed for acceptance of products that were a result of the industrial revolution.

Weber demonstrated religious ideas were major influence on the development of the economic systems in both Europe and the United States. He was careful to point out that they were not the only factors involved, but that they played a major role in preparing society to accept the new ideas that were necessary for the success of mass production. Weber felt that an exploration of the Protestant ethic only represented one aspect of the freedom from feudalism. He felt that this was a key distinguishing characteristic that separated western culture from that of the orient,

Weber vs. Marx

It can be said that Weber felt that spiritual rationalization eventually lead to rational capitalism. Some have said that Weber's work can be considered a criticism of Karl Marx and his theories. Marx held that all human institutions, including religion, were based on economic foundations. The theories of Marx and Weber are opposites in many ways. In order to understand Weber thoroughly, it is important to examine those of Marx as well. It is much like the argument of which came first, the chicken or the egg. Marx feels that the Protestant religion was an outgrowth of changes in the marketplace that led to capitalism. Weber's work disputes this argument and claims that it was entirely the other way around.

Marx and Weber both focused on understanding the large structures and institutions that had an effect on the lives of individuals. They focused on how the structures changed over time and space. Marx focused on economic structures. He focused on the development of productive forces and the ownership of a means of production. Before the industrial era, society moved from one where the individuals had complete ownership of their trade or business. As the industrial society developed it became the case where someone else owned the means to produce the goods. The individual provided the service and labor needed to make the goods, but it was the factory owner that ultimately owned the means to produce the goods that were sold. Weber felt that other structures such as religion, ideology, social status, and the bureaucracy could influence the lives of people in ways that were not directly derived from interest in economic gain (Hadden 1977). One of the key differences between Marx and Weber is the influence placed on the structures themselves. Marx in Weber had many of the same ideas, only they focused on different aspects of society. Both of them attempted to explain the changes in society and economic systems during their lifetime.

Both Marx and Weber knew that the actions of the individual were an important feature of social structures and the mechanism that affected societal change. Marx was more likely to focus on groups, rather than individual action. Marxian analysis is not concerned with individual human actions within the structure. It is more theoretical in nature and not is able to predict the actions of individuals as Weber's work. Weber's work attempted to bridge understanding of large structures of society and individual actions that made up the group.

Weber felt that sociologists could develop an understanding of both the individual action and group action. Weber developed the mechanism for understanding the historical processes. The theory concentrated on empathy for the individual and a concentration on understanding the meaning behind individual actions. Understanding the meaning behind the individual actions is the key to understanding Weber's approach to sociology. Weber's emphasis was on gaining a core understanding of the actions, rather than simply from sympathy with the individual. (Ritzer 1992). Weber felt that in order to understand the group one must be able to fully understand individual motivations for their actions. This included understanding the limitations and constraints on their action that were imposed upon them by structures and institutions.

Weber's focus was on developing a method for understanding individual actions that could be applied to any situation. Weber argued that that being able to understand the individual gives one in advantage over the natural scientist. Natural scientists studied the results of the actions of groups and did not attempt to analyze the root cause. Weber felt that this approach was incomplete and that one could not analyze the movement of groups unless they understood the individuals within that group.

Understanding the Role of Religion

Marx did not see capitalism as a means for the lower class to achieve economic freedom. He saw the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer. He saw that the common worker was being exploited and that they were becoming detached from the products that they created. In doing so, mark argued that the worker became devalued. They were no longer connected with the object that they produced, but were connected to the wage that they earned instead. Workers became a commodity and therefore lost human freedoms. Marx believed that when this happened to the worker would be told he or she was a replaceable tool and that this alienated the worker and led to discontent.

Mark felt that religion had a function in the capitol society, but he did not agree that it served the same purpose as Weber. Marx argued that religion was a hindrance to reason and that as such served as a means to control the worker. Marx argued that religion served to perpetuate domination of lower class individuals. The happiness promoted by religion is simply seen as an illusion to make the lower class feel as if they are really happy. If the lower class decided to give up the illusions, then they would be discontented and may demand their real happiness. Marx saw religion as a means to control the masses and deny them of their ability to reason. This is quite the opposite of Weber's opinion of the role of religion in the capitalist society.

In order to fully understand the connection between religion and society it is important to study the works of Emile Durkheim. Much like Marx, Durkheim approached the study of society as unemotional and scientific. He was interested primarily in the problem of what held modern societies together. Durkheim felt that religion was an expression of social cohesion. This theory was somewhere between that of Marx and that of Weber.

Marx viewed religion as an allusion that was constructed by those in power to prevent the rise of the lower class. Durkheim disagreed that religion was imaginary, but rather felt that religion was an actual expression of society's own perception of itself. His work was primarily based on the study of Australian aborigines and their religious system. Durkheim did not feel it was possible for a society to exist in which there was no religion. He felt that religion was a symbol of the concept that there is a force greater than us. Durkheim felt that religious deities were an expression of this sense of something greater than us. Deities represent society. Individuals give it a supernatural face to make it easier to discuss and understand. Durkheim saw religion as a sort of collective consciousness which resulted from the fusion of the individual ideas within that society.

Durkheim saw religion as a means by which one could understand a society. Religion serves as a type of language that can be used to symbolically decipher the society from which it came. This is quite different from the ideas put forth by Marx and by Weber. As the ideas of the individual to become fused into one, they begin to disappear into the collective whole. They take on a life of their own and religion becomes an institution in and of itself. Durkheim feels that the complexity of the religion is a reflection of the society from which it came.

Durkheim argued that religion unified societies. Those of a particular religion had common beliefs and practices relative to sacred things. Certain things were set apart or forbidden while others were expected. Durkheim defined religion in terms of what it does for society. Religion unites and defines society. This differs from Weber's definition that focused on the effects of religion. Weber concentrated on how religious ideas and groups interacted with other aspects of society, particularly economically. An understanding of these differences in definition is an important part of understanding Weber's theory in its entirety.

Weber differed from Durkheim and Marx in that he believed religion could give rise to motivation. Marx saw religion as an artifact of society and a deliberate means of control. Durkheim saw religion as an effect of society but did not recognize that it could in turn affect the future of that society. Weber was the only theorist that proposed society could change religion and that religion could in turn change society.

Puritan theology was based on the Calvinist notion that not everyone would be saved. There were only a select few who would avoid damnation. Puritan belief held that God predetermined will and that one could not change their predetermined destiny. It was also believed that one could never know if they were among those that were chosen to avoid damnation. Weber noted the difficulty of this concept from a psychological perspective. People wanted to know whether they would be saved from damnation or not. This is the apparent in source of the idea that if they began doing well financially and their businesses thrived than they could take this as an unofficial signed that God had approved and that they were among the saved. This idea was promoted among Puritan leaders and led to the development of rational bookkeeping and the calculated pursuit of economic gain. This eventually led to the pursuit of wealth beyond one's needs. Pursuit of economic gain beyond ones needs is what Weber called the "spirit of capitalism." Over time these habits lost their religious significance and the pursuit of profit took on its own character. Eventually the pursuit of profit was the sole reason for entrance in pursuit of a trade.

The Junker-Class

Politics played an important role in Weber's life. At that time Prussia was dominated by a group called the Junkers. This group constituted a group of wealthy landowners who are opposed to free trade in grain. They were opposed to liberal capitalistic reforms. At the time of Weber's birth Germany was still divided into separate principality's and was at war with Austria and France. By 1871, Count Bismarck had managed to unify Germany and Prussia, thus gaining control over much of German speaking Europe (Ashley and Orenstein 1992). German industrialists were a direct threat to the power of the Junkers. One of the key problems that Bismarck faced was how to unify the interests of the Junkers with those of the German industrialists without creating a revolution and dividing the area once again. Even though the Junkers had great influence over Bismarck, German industrialists were still able to push through several important reforms such as social security and pension plans.

The unification of Germany helped to encourage industrial expansion, capitalism, and the rise of the German working class. Meanwhile, the Junker class struggled to hold on to the last remnants of the old feudal system. The new German industrialist movement was not born in an environment that was liberal and democratic. It had to struggle in a system that was still dominated by monarchists, a military regime, and aristocrats (Ashley and Orenstein 1992). Weber's world was a time when politics were dominated by fights between the governing social democratic party and the newfound power of the right wing elements. This eventually led to the rise of the NAZI regime in 1933. During Weber's lifetime Germany was in political upheaval. This may have influenced Weber's pessimistic opinion on the ability to achieve national unity and cohesion. These ideals were close to Weber's heart and something that he wished to see in his lifetime.

Weber was in favor of the movement towards capital markets. However, his father was a staunch supporter of the Junkers, the aristocracy, eastern German landowners and of Bismarck. Weber and his father were often at odds. Weber's father was a member of the German bureaucracy and a representative for the national liberal party in the question house and Reichdag (Grabb 1990). Weber and his father were in disagreement at the time of Weber's father's death. They never resolved their differences and this was said to be a reason for Weber's mental decline.

Weber's mother, on the other hand was a Protestant and Calvinist with strong moral ideas. Weber was influenced more by her views and approach to life than that of his father. Weber did not claim to be religious, but he did study religion extensively. He often criticized his father for the treatment of his mother. This conflict was symbolic of the conflict that was going on in the nation around him. He wished to understand the schism that was occurring in his personal life and in society at large. He did not feel that one could separate the two and this had a major influence on the development of the theories contained in the Protestant ethic.

Weber lived in a divided Germany and was very aware of the political machine and the necessity of the bureaucracy in the ability of democracy to function. He was impressed with mass political parties and the rise of voluntary citizen organizations that he felt helped to promote freedom and promote democracy. Weber felt that the rise of the people would be the key to achieving unity and peace in Germany. Although, he did not feel that he would see it in his lifetime. Weber felt that the actions of citizens groups would drive the rise of industrialization and that the ethics of Protestant workers would be the key to economic success. He knew that religion had disappeared from the equation, but he still saw that the spirit was alive and well in the German industrialization movement.