Cultural persistence and change among the Mbuti hunter-gatherers

Mbuti

Unmovable: The Mbuti of the Ituri Forest

For more than 2,000 years, the world has been aware of the Mbuti (Pygmy) hunter-gatherers that reside in the Ituri Forest of northern Zaire. References have been made to Pygmies that date as far back as Ancient Egypt, with mentions made by Herodotus, Aristotle and Homer (McDonald, 2004). Little however, was known about the daily lives of the Mbuti Pygmies until the 1950's. In an effort to find the values of goodness in the world post World War II, the public became interested in an isolated people who seemed far freer and more egalitarian than most self described "civilized societies (McDonald, 2004).The Mbuti are part of a larger group of forest dwellers referred to as the Bambuti. According to the most recent statistics, there are reportedly less than 20,000 pure blood Bambuti remaining in the world (Turnbull, 1998).

The Mbuti are described as the least influenced by extraneous cultures; preserving their traditions, culture, beliefs, and ability to navigate and survive in the Ituri Forest (Watson & Stone, 1995). The Mbuti have been able to develop a system of agriculturally-based bartering that has served to increase their viability and ensured continued survival. There are a number of pressures to acculturate as well as environmental challenges facing the Mbuti group. The collective is purportedly being replaced with more ideas and practices of individuality and independence (Turnbull, 1998). There are natural and political threats to the environment; specifically deforestation, and political wrangling. However, the Mbuti are intrinsically linked to the forest they inhabit; "the forest is everything" (Watson & Stone, 1995). The Mbuti group posses a unique set of customs, values, traditions, and beliefs that have withstood the test of time, but are currently undergoing progressive change. Their ability to adapt to these changes may be a way to teach other cultures the necessary coping mechanisms to adapt to disruptions in their own environments.

I. Primary mode of sustenance

The Mbuti are preeminent hunter gatherers, and because of their physical stature, are able to navigate the dense forest with great ease. The Mbuti, for generations, have hunted as a group to kill ground game. They are highly skilled experts and have demonstrated proven ability to master the environment in which they live. Certain rituals are adhered to prior to each hunt consisting of the group setting a ritual fire at the base of a tree; first to appease the forest which they highly respect, and as a way of requesting the forest assist them in a successful hunt. As a part of the ritual, each hunter passes through the smoke generated from the fire as a way of cleansing himself before beginning the hunt. Subsequent to the cleansing ritual, the hunt is initiated. All members of the group participate in the hunt. The women and children create a boisterous semi-circle, generating noise that drives game into the awaiting nets of the hunters. The Mbuti nets, typically made from nkusa vines, are masterfully crafted and highly prized. The lines of nets are strategically hung throughout the forest floor; and; may measure close to two hundred meters in length. As an added measure of good luck, guinea fowl feathers or seeds are often interspersed throughout the netting.

A. Net hunting is believed to have particularly important implications for efficient foraging, organization and the division of labor. In the ethnographic record, net hunting as displayed by the Mbuti involve a communal workforce; which is seen as more economically efficient at procuring prey vs. isolated hunting efforts (Adovasio, Soffer, & Klima,1996; Pringle, 1998; Soffer, 2000; Driver, 1990; Foibis, 1978 and Hayden, 1981).The Mbuti men carry spears and wait by the nets, quickly killing any captured game. The youth of the tribe are frequently armed with bows and arrows and act as "longshots" for any animal that escapes. The youth are also highly skilled at capturing escaped animals with their bare hands.

B. The most highly sought after game for the Mbuti group is the dulker; a small forest dwelling antelope. Six species of dulker inhabit the Ituri forest, and range in size from the blue dulker which is little more than one foot high to the yellow backed dulker that measures three times as tall. The Mbuti utilize every facet of the animal; using the skin for quivers and drums, and the horns for medicinal containers. Although the forest is also inhabited by elephants, and at one time was the most prize game, killing elephants is illegal. In addition to trapping ground game, the men of the Mbuti frequently hunt solo or in small groups for monkeys and birds. This kind of hunting is done with slingshots and bow and arrow. The Mbuti men must be able to effectively and efficiently master both styles of hunting; the stealth required for singular hunts, as well as the collaborative effort required for group excursions. The Mbuti recognize hunting as a primary factor in their survival. However, they also respect the balance of nature as evidenced by their willingness and tradition of relocating their indigenous camps on a regular basis, so as to not deplete any given area of its natural agricultural and animal resources.

C. It is not uncommon, subsequent to a successful hunt, for the men of the group to engage in tobacco or marijuana smoking. Although marijuana smoking is illegal, both tobacco and marijuana grow prolifically in the forest and are freely traded between groups. The Mbuti cannot be categorized as purely agrarian or foragers. It is true the Mbuti live in small groups, working together in a more egalitarian stylized community; however, the gender specific work roles characteristic of classic foragers is absent from the Mbuti tradition. Moreover, there are no expressed rules about how the spoils of the hunt are divided amongst group members based on biological or cultural opines. Because food is plentiful in the Ituri forest, there is no need for seasonal game migration (Searles & Lee, 2002).

III. Beliefs and Values

According to group historians, religion amongst the groups in the Ituri forest is increasingly reflective of those of neighboring African groups. The Bambuti are said to believe that goodness and the wealth of the forest emanates from Muungu, the highest and greatest forest god; who is the ultimate supplier of all of their needs (Pulford, 1993). The Bambuti are said to believe in totemic "sitana" or spirits; animals whose characteristics and spirits represent the group's unity. Moreover, the Bambuti are said to believe in the water animal "nyama ya mai," who's responsible for serious water accidents. Magical rituals are purported to be common amongst the Bambuti; particularly those that help improve hunting and control the weather. The most important practice ritual is said to be the "molimo" ceremony; held when hunting becomes unproductive or special circumstances arise within the group that requires a particular solution.

A. The traditional rites of passage for prepubescent females in the group, called the "elima," centered on the females first experience with menstruation. This practice of initiation, however, is said to have decreased over time. For the young men of the group, they participate in "nkumbi," while attending a village circumcision school. This rite of passage is conducted every three to four years. The young men of the group are required to leave their extended families for several months and live together with others from surrounding cohorts. All the young men participate in the circumcision ceremony together; making them a part of a special age specific group. The young men are often identified by their group name, as each class acquires a name from an important event that transpired during the initiation process.

B. Marriage amongst the Bambuti occurs shortly after puberty for both girls and boys. Thus, courtships are brief it at all. The Mbuti have established a form of bride-price wherein a prospective husband finds a wife for one of his bride's brothers within his own extended family. This system is said to ensure the female population of the bride's family is not rendered depleted.

IV. Gender Relations

In Mbuti society, men can be polygamists', marrying several times. The wives of the Mbuti husband form a close knit group and manage camp responsibilities and children collectively. Children within the group refer to all women of the community as "Ema," or mother (Turnbull, 1962). It is very common for children to be nursed and adopted collectively, and to care for children outside of their nuclear family. Frequently initiated by the female, divorce reportedly occurs at a high rate within the Mbuti group (Turnbull, 1983). When a woman wants to sever ties with her husband, she is said to return home with her small children to her family's camp. If the wife has boys, most often when they are of age, they return to their fathers when it is time to hunt.

According to Mbuti custom and tradition, the women in the group are responsible for much of the manual labor. Although the group does not reside in an ever for sufficient enough time to grow and harvest crops, the women are required to chop wood, gather mushrooms, roots, fruit, and seeds from the forest on a daily basis. When the men hunt for prey such as monkeys, dulkers or birds, the women are responsible for carrying the meat back from the successful hunt. Women are responsible to weave elaborate vine belts that hold the customary bark loincloths in position, as well as assisting in the making of hunting nets. When the group relocates camp, the women are responsible for carrying the entire family's possessions.

Conclusion

Although faced with recent challenges, the Mbuti group, and in the larger sense the Bambuti, have demonstrated tremendous wherewithal in maintaining their culture, beliefs and traditions for thousands of years. The Mbuti have demonstrated great skill as hunter-gatherers and have successfully maintained utilizing the bounty the Ituri forest has provided for them. When necessary, the Mbuti have developed strategic alliances with neighboring communities and villages for the exchange of goods and service. Traditional egalitarian roles, absent classism and group member hierarchy have served the group well. The Mbuti's unique group practices cannot be classified as primarily foragers, agrarian, or any prescribed descriptions of how they hunt, and gather within their environment. Although there are mounting pressures to change their way of life, acculturate, and assimilate, the Mbuti are continuing along the path they have maintained for centuries.