Mental Imagery in Sports and Health: Benefits and Limits

Introduction

Sports coaches, just as the athletes they train, are also viewed as performers. While the nature of their performance may differ from that of the athletes, their jobs require meticulous planning in areas such as training, competition, and the execution of training procedures. They must be flexible enough to adapt to different situations as they arise, and must cope effectively with stress stemming from the competitive environment, media intrusion, and pressure to produce results (Olusoga, Maynard, Butt & Hays, 2014).

It is apparent, therefore, that psychological factors play a significant role in athletic performance. A theoretical framework for athletes to self-regulate their emotional states suggests that psychological skills such as relaxation, self-talk, imagery, and goal setting are needed to enhance psychological abilities — including the capacity to completely relax (Olusoga et al., 2014). These psychological abilities give performers the capacity to reach peak mental states for the tasks they are engaged in, and growing evidence shows that systematic mental skills training (MST) can improve an athlete's ability to draw on psychological skills during stressful competitions (Olusoga et al., 2014). MST can positively influence an athlete's performance, knowledge, awareness, and use of psychological skills. Indeed, a substantial body of literature addresses mental skills and how their use enhances athlete performance and modifies perception (Olusoga et al., 2014).

Models of Mental Imagery

Research points to the utility of mental imagery across the fields of sports, education, and business. It has been shown to improve goal orientation and to enhance coping and persistence (Burke, Shanahan & Herlambang, 2014). Research indicates that the practice of mental imagery may be effective in encouraging goal setting, enhancing positive affect, and helping college students achieve academic success. Intentional visual imagery involves producing a perceptual or virtual experience that bears real resemblance to what is perceived, and may also involve perceptual, motor, and spatial representations (Burke et al., 2014).

It is believed that imagery plays a role in several cognitive functions, including memory encoding, social interaction, navigation, and spatial planning (Burke et al., 2014). Several neurocognitive models have been proposed in an attempt to explain these phenomena. Some models suggest that visual mental imagery draws on many of the same neural processes used in visual perception, including temporal and parietal cortical regions — a concept referred to as the perception-imagery equivalence hypothesis (Burke et al., 2014). Other research findings indicate that visual perception and visual mental imagery may share the same neural substrates while using distinct neural dynamics (Burke et al., 2014). It has also been proposed that different kinds of mental images use unique neural processes while sharing a number of cognitive and neural elements. For instance, one study found that imagery of emotionally charged events affected different brain regions depending on whether the event was experienced in the recent or distant past.

Applications of Mental Imagery

Imagery has historically been used in both professional and amateur sports. A review of at least two hundred studies involving athletic imagery found that most indicated the presence of benefits (Burke et al., 2014). Several reviews and studies have demonstrated the value of sport imagery in managing arousal, improving performance-related skills, and enhancing self-efficacy, persistence, and confidence. Evidence of imagery use can be found across various educational levels; guided imagery has been used in both secondary and elementary education (Burke et al., 2014).

Despite an absence of consensus on the precise neural mechanisms involved, evidence exists supporting mental imagery's value for well-being, health, goal attainment, and the acquisition of motor skills (Burke et al., 2014). It is, for instance, becoming an increasingly important tool in therapy — used primarily by patients with cancer and in the management of pain, anxiety, and treatment side effects (Burke et al., 2014). Recent neuroimaging findings reveal that imagining motor actions recruits brain regions corresponding to those involved in actual physical movement. Mental imagery has been successfully applied to enhance motor skills among stroke patients (Burke et al., 2014).

Positive Contributions of Mental Imagery

Mental imagery has been widely studied in sport psychology and the academic disciplines of sport science across various universities (Mousa, Saleh & Abu, 2014). Cognitive research demonstrates that physical practice and mental imagery engage the same cognitive processes. Several researchers have shown that mental imagery and physical practice activate the same cortical regions involved in motor imagery (Mousa et al., 2014). In considering how imagery operates, athletes have made use of a variety of approaches not only to enhance their physical conditioning but their psychology as well. Mental imagery may be a valuable complement to physical practice and is superior to physical practice alone in certain contexts. Imagery groups have been shown to outperform control groups that used neither physical practice nor imagery (Mousa et al., 2014).

Using imagery before a competitive activity enhances performance. Strength and muscular endurance are improved in motor activities, and imagery increases self-confidence, attention control, and motivation (Mousa et al., 2014). Skilled athletes have widely adopted the technique, and it has also been applied in the rehabilitation of patients with neurological pathologies. Many athletes believe that gaining a "mental edge" over competitors provides a significant advantage during competition (Mousa et al., 2014). Mental imagery has been shown to enhance motor skills performance. As a component of sport psychology or as a mental training tool, it has been used to sustain athletes' physical performance, particularly during competition. Investigations comparing mental imagery with other training techniques have confirmed it as an effective tool for the development and training of motor skills (Mousa et al., 2014).

Mental imagery techniques have also been applied to promote desired behaviors in various health contexts, including relaxation during cancer treatment, reducing alcohol dependence, and encouraging exercise (Loft & Cameron, 2013). Patients engage in vivid, perceptual experiences through mental simulation, which can be induced to affect motivation, enhance goal salience, and clarify behavioral processes (Loft & Cameron, 2013). Arousal-reduction techniques are frequently used in health settings, but empirical evidence regarding their effectiveness in promoting sleep quality is inconsistent. Interventions targeting the implementation of intentions are relatively new, yet emerging evidence shows that repeatedly using imagery tasks — in which a person visualizes the necessary behavioral steps leading to a desired outcome — can improve behavioral adherence and goal attainment (Loft & Cameron, 2013).

References

Beauchemin, J. (2014). College student-athlete wellness: An integrative outreach model. College Student Journal, 268–278.

Burke, A., Shanahan, C., & Herlambang, E. (2014). An exploratory study comparing goal-oriented mental imagery with daily to-do lists: Supporting college student success. Current Psychology, 33, 20–34.

Klein, J., & Moritz, S. (2014). On the relevance of mental imagery beyond stress-related psychiatric disorders. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 5, 1–3.

Loft, M., & Cameron, L. (2013). Using mental imagery to deliver self-regulation techniques to improve sleep behaviors. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 46, 260–272.

Mousa, K., Saleh, R., & Abu, M. (2014). The effect of movement imagery training on learning forearm pass in volleyball. Education, 134(2).

Olusoga, P., Maynard, I., Butt, J., & Hays, K. (2014). Coaching under pressure: Mental skills training for sports coaches. Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, 10(3), 31–44.