Military Flight and its Impact on the U.S. Military

Military -- Flight and its Impact on the U.S. Military

Though military use of flight was slow in the earliest days of 20th Century America, Post-World War IU.S. military involvements rapidly accelerated the development of flight, revolutionizing warfare. Initially a matter of curiosity during the Wright Brothers' historic flight, aviation gradually gained ground in the mindset of the U.S. Military. As a result, during the 20th Century and particularly in the course of each war in which the United States participated, aviation became a vital factor in America's supremacy over the globe and Space.

Though military use of flight was slow in the earliest days of 20th Century America, Post-World War IU.S. military involvements rapidly accelerated the development of flight, revolutionizing warfare. In the earliest years of the 20th Century, the military was barely interested in flight. Military observers were on hand for the Wright brothers' first successful flight at Kitty Hawk, NC in December 1903[footnoteRef:1]; however, the military did not invest in flight at that time and the Wright brothers' project was not supported by the U.S. War Department.[footnoteRef:2] the "Wright Flyer," constructed of spruce, ash, muslin and piano wire, made aviation history when this first successful heavier-than-air craft stayed aloft for approximately 12 seconds and traveled approximately 120 yards.[footnoteRef:3] Despite the U.S. Military's initial reluctance to invest in flight, interest in the possible military uses of flight grew and by 1908, the U.S. Army's Signal Corps established an Aeronautical Division created to oversee testing of "dirigibles, balloons and airplanes" for which the U.S. government had already contracted.[footnoteRef:4] Initially operating on a shoestring budget, the Aeronautical Division was finally given major funding by the U.S. Congress in 1912,[footnoteRef:5] and dealt with aircraft manufacturers such as the newly-formed Lockheed Company.[footnoteRef:6] U.S. governmental and military interest and investment in aviation continued to grow very slowly, including the establishment of the 1st Aero Squadron in 1913, until Congress' July 18, 1914 statutory recognition and funding of army aviation.[footnoteRef:7] the legislation was timely, as World War I broke out merely 10 days later.[footnoteRef:8] [1: John Cooper, Jr. Pivotal Decades: The United States, 1900-1920. New York, NY W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1990, p. 13.] [2: Ibid.] [3 R.G. Grant. Flight: The Complete History. New York, NY: DK Publishing, 2007, p. 28.] [4: Tom D. Crouch. Wings: A History of Aviation from Kites to the Space Age. New York, NY W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004, p. 4.] [5: Ibid.] [6: Ibid., p. 14.] [7: Chester G. Hearn. Air Force: An Illustrated History: The U.S. Air Force from the 1910s to the 21st Century. Minneapolis, MN: Zenith Press, 2008, p. 22.] [8: Ibid.]

In September of 1914, the 1st Aero Squadron was reorganized and consisted of 16 officers, 77 enlisted men and 8 Curtiss JN "Jenny" airplanes.[footnoteRef:9] Realizing that their forces paled in comparison to the aviation might of the enemy, the 1st Aero Squadron requested funding for additional planes and a Congress awakening to the dangers of enemy aviation and possibilities of our own well-equipped aviation forces allotted a whopping $13,282,000.00 for "aeronautical development" in 1916.[footnoteRef:10] Unfortunately, the 1st Aero Squadron was ill-prepared to effectively use the funding for building a sufficient number of planes and training a sufficient number of pilots prior to our entry into World War I on April 16, 1917. Consequently, the Squadron was forced to chiefly rely on French and British planes during World War I.[footnoteRef:11] Nevertheless, development and construction of new aircraft began ramping up in this decade, with the establishment of such notable and enduring aircraft manufacturers as Boeing.[footnoteRef:12] Furthermore, by the end of World War I in November of 1919, our "air force" had evolved into the "Air Service," with nearly 200 aero squadrons with supporting personnel, supplies and construction units.[footnoteRef:13] This Army Air Service tentatively began using aviation for attacks, carrying messages and transport of able and wounded troops. [9: Ibid.] [10: Ibid., p. 23.] [11: Ibid., pp. 25-6.] [12: Crouch, pp. 183-4.] [13: James McCarthy. Air Force (U.S. Military Series). Andrews AFB, MD: Hugh Lauter Levin Associates, Inc., 2002, pp. 17-19.]

After World War I, air forces of all countries including the U.S. were "wound down."[footnoteRef:14] However, the country's interest in aviation was ignited and the 1920's and 1930's became a "Golden Age" of aviation,[footnoteRef:15] with understandably accelerated military interest in flight between World Wars I and II. Aircraft developers and manufacturers continued to spring up, perhaps the most notable being the Douglas Aircraft Company in 1921.[footnoteRef:16] With significantly increased focus and funding, the developments in aviation began to multiply. By 1920, commercial flights were viable.[footnoteRef:17] in addition, the Army Air Corps was established in 1924. In 1926, Robert H. Goddard succeeded in the first flight of a rocket fueled by liquid.[footnoteRef:18] in 1927, Charles a. Lindbergh achieved the first nonstop solo trans-Atlantic flight.[footnoteRef:19] the jet engine was invented in 1930.[footnoteRef:20] in 1932, Amelia Earhart became the first female pilot to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean.[footnoteRef:21] 1933 saw the advent of the first modern airliner, the Boeing 247.[footnoteRef:22] Finally, and monumentally for military purposes, the first completely jet-propelled aircraft -- a German aircraft -- took off on August 27, 1939, merely 4 days before the commencement of World War II.[footnoteRef:23] in the interim between the end of World War I in 1919 and the U.S. entry into World War II in 1941, the "Air Service" evolved into the "Army Air Corps."[footnoteRef:24] Fortunately, by the United States' entry into World War II in 1941, U.S. aviation developments had succeeded to the point at which our Army Air Corps had a well-developed doctrine, the support of a thriving aircraft industry, the ability to rapidly expand as needed, and the capability to operate worldwide.[footnoteRef:25] [14: Hearn, p. 107.] [15: Ibid.] [16: Robert Jackson. The Encyclopedia of Aircraft. San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press, 2004, p. 84.] [17: Christopher Chant. The World's Greatest Aircraft. New York, NY: Crescent Publishing, 1991, p. 201.] [18: Grant, p. 336.] [19: Jackson, p. 427.] [20: Grant, p. 7.] [21: Ibid., p. 122.] [22: Jackson, p. 86.] [23: Grant, p. 185.] [24: McCarthy, pp. 28-9.] [25: Ibid., p. 29.]

The United States' participation in World War II from December 8, 1941 to September 2, 1945 necessarily caused a dramatic burst in flight development. From 1941 to 1945, airplanes and jets were developed extensively for use in World War II, chiefly by the Army Air Corps.[footnoteRef:26] Developments during that time included Radio Detection and Ranging (RADAR), first so named by the U.S. Navy and ushering in an era in which "electronic detection and navigation systems" and their countermeasures could determine victory or defeat in battle.[footnoteRef:27] Aircraft itself was also being transformed with the manufacture of the B-17, B-24, B-25, B-26 and B-29 Flying Fortresses[footnoteRef:28] and the P-51 Mustang.[footnoteRef:29] the B. Series of "flying fortresses," chiefly commissioned by the U.S. Army Air Corps, were developed and manufactured by the Boeing Company, and were designed to be fully pressurized, allowing flight crews a far more comfortable high-altitude environment.[footnoteRef:30] Though the B. Series of planes functioned as workhorses during World War II, essentially incinerating major enemy cities in both war theaters, the most notable use involved the devastating atomic bombing of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 and subsequent atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945 through the use of a B-29 planes.[footnoteRef:31] Meanwhile, the U.S. Navy commissioned the development and construction of carrier-based fighter planes by the Grumman Company, including but not limited to the Wildcat and the Hellcat.[footnoteRef:32] Still another aviation development first effectively used in World War II was the helicopter: initially designed as a flying toy as early as 1325,[footnoteRef:33] by the 1940's the helicopter was so fully developed that it was widely used by the U.S. Air Force, Navy and Coast Guard for such duties as attack, rescue and reconnaissance.[footnoteRef:34] in addition, the U.S. And its allies examined German Messerchmitts and intercepted Nazi secrets regarding rockets, which began an age of high-speed aerodynamics shifting flight from mere travel in the earth's atmosphere to travel beyond our atmosphere.[footnoteRef:35] the result of these and other aviation developments was the eventual U.S. And allied dominance of the skies in World War II, with saturation bombing in both the European and Pacific Theaters of War.[footnoteRef:36] All in all, the U.S. military used aviation developments in planes, jets, drones and gliders for outright attack, transportation of cargo and troops, and reconnaissance during World War II, practices that continued through the 20th Century. [26: Ibid.] [27: Crouch, p. 384.] [28: Grant, p. 71.] [29: Jackson, p. 141.] [30: Crouch, p. 387.] [31: Ibid., p. 424.] [32: Robert Gadbois. Hellcat Tales: AU.S. Navy Fighter Pilot in World War II, Third Edition. Bennington, VT: Merriam Press, 2005, p. 50.] [33: Crouch, p. 25.] [34: Walter J. Boyne. Beyond the Wild and Blue: A History of the United States Air Force, 1947-2007, Second Edition. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 2007, p. 91.] [35: Crouch, pp. 404-5.] [36: Ibid., p. 579.]

The Korean War (June 25, 1950 -- July 27, 1953) saw an even more sophisticated form of helicopter uses[footnoteRef:37] and saturation bombing by air. B-29 and B-26 bombers were used by U.S. forces to decimate Korean cities through round-the-clock air war using incendiary bombs, delayed demolition explosives and an "infernal jelly" called napalm.[footnoteRef:38] Created secretly during World War II, napalm was basically a mixture of petroleum and a thickening agent, designed to fiercely adhere to the target and severely burn it. Though first used against enemy structures and humans in World War II, napalm was used in the Korean War to devastating effect.[footnoteRef:39] the results of the U.S. air war against North Korea were intentionally catastrophic: at the commencement of the War, North Korea had 22 major cities, 18 of which suffered at least 50% obliteration.[footnoteRef:40] Furthermore, the U.S. government seriously considered using the atomic bombs that had so decisively ended World War II in the Pacific Theater. Particularly in September and October of 1951, B-29 bombers were used for multiple runs to drop "dummy" a-bombs or heavy TNT bombs on North Korea.[footnoteRef:41] However, the use of the a-bomb was ultimately deemed logistically impractical because "timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare."[footnoteRef:42] in the end, the United States dropped 635,000 tons of bombs and 32,577 tons of napalm on Korea[footnoteRef:43], and some U.S. military personnel such as Air Force general Otto Weyland were convinced that the merciless air war forced an early conclusion to the War.[footnoteRef:44] [37: McCarthy, p. 157.] [38: Bruce Cumings. The Korean War: A History. New York, NY: Modern Library, 2011, p. 159.] [39: Ibid.] [40: Ibid., p. 160.] [41: Ibid., p. 157.] [42: Ibid., pp. 157-8.] [43: Ibid., p. 159.] [44: Ibid., p. 160.]

From the end of World War II to the Vietnam War, the Military significantly aided the development of jet and rocket flight. Due to great interest in the value of flight during World War II, the Military was intent on advancing and taking full advantage of development in flights. Consequently, in 1947 both the U.S. Air Force was established[footnoteRef:45] and an Air Force pilot named Charles Yeager broke the sound barrier in an experimental plane called the Bell X-1.[footnoteRef:46] From 1947 to 1957, the U.S. Military extensively developed "flight arms" of its military branches and military jets, such as the F-86 Sabre[footnoteRef:47] and the B-52 Stratofortress.[footnoteRef:48] the Soviet Union was also understandably highly interested in the military uses of flight, resulting in the 1957 launch of its first man-made satellite[footnoteRef:49] and the 1961 launch of the first man in space, Yuri Gagarin.[footnoteRef:50] [45: Walter J. Boyne. Beyond the Wild and Blue: A History of the United States Air Force, 1947-2007, Second Edition. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 2007, p. 6.] [46: Ibid., p. 69.] [47: Ibid., p. 57.] [48: Grant, p. 286.] [49: McCarthy, p. 79.] [50: Boyne, p. 192.]

The United States' involvement in the Vietnam War from 1950 to 1973 spurred the further sophistication of existing flight machines and the development of "Smart Weapons." 1962 saw both the first production of the 744 plane[footnoteRef:51] and the first orbit of Earth by an American, a Marine Corps pilot named John J. Glenn, Jr.[footnoteRef:52] Though America was initially lagging behind the Soviet Union in space exploration, by 1969, a U.S. Navy pilot named Neil a. Armstrong and a U.S. Air Force pilot named Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., became the first earthlings to walk on the moon.[footnoteRef:53] Not to be outdone in aviation, the Soviet Union launched the first space station, Salyut 1, in 1971.[footnoteRef:54] Though aircraft developed prior to the Vietnam War was used in that conflict, the U.S. also developed "smart weapons, such as precision-guided weapons, for use in that war.[footnoteRef:55] Furthermore, the then-sophisticated aircraft used in this war is a laundry list of specialized craft, including but not limited to: the Skyraider, a propeller-driven craft that was heavily armed and used for strafing, bombing and rescue[footnoteRef:56]; the Skyhawk, a single-seat attack bomber[footnoteRef:57]; the F-4 Phantom, a two-seat, two-engine interceptor-bomber[footnoteRef:58]; Jolly Green rescue helicopters[footnoteRef:59]and an F-8 Crusader, a MiG-21 class fighter using both guns and missiles.[footnoteRef:60] Despite extensive development of aviation during the Vietnam War, the U.S. Military was disappointed with the overall efficacy of the air attack[footnoteRef:61] and engaged in a reorganization of systems for the development of intelligence, technology and information systems. [51: Ibid., p. 112.] [52: Grant, p. 341.] [53: Ibid., p. 353.] [54: Ibid., p. 360.] [55: Robert K. Wilcox. Scream of Eagles: The Dramatic Account of the U.S. Navy's Top Gun Fighter Pilots and How They Took Back the Skies Over Vietnam. New York, NY: Pocket Star Books, 2005, pp. 287-9.] [56: Ibid., p. 287.] [57: Ibid.] [58: Ibid., p. 288.] [59: Ibid., p. 25.] [60: Ibid.] [61: David R. Mets. Airpower and Technology: Smart and Unmanned Weapons. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2009, p. 113.]

After the Vietnam War, the U.S. Military concentrated on further developing flight machines, including "smart weapons" that pierced the "fog of war." The "fog of war" is a widely-used phrased essentially referring to the uncertainty about all variables in war due to the complexity of war.[footnoteRef:62] One vital development for the design, construction and use of smart weapons was Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER). First suggested theoretically by Albert Einstein in 1917, LASER was developed at Bell Labs in 1953.[footnoteRef:63] Realizing the value of a system that accurately measures range/speed and marks targets (and avoids becoming an easy target), the U.S. military began a program for laser-guided bombs as early as 1964, [footnoteRef:64] and used laser-guided crafts and weaponry during the Vietnam War.[footnoteRef:65] However, it was after the Vietnam War that the development of aircraft using smart weapons reached an art form in a "transformation of American Air Power."[footnoteRef:66] During these years, fighting aircraft such as the F-14, F-15C and F-16 were developed.[footnoteRef:67] in addition, the F-117 aircraft was developed to overcome "the synergies of RADAR, SAM, AAA and air interceptors" to reduce the visibility of aircraft and therefore enhance its ability to avoid interception and destruction.[footnoteRef:68] Meanwhile, in the realm of outer space, the U.S. developed the first reusable space craft -- a space shuttle called "Columbia" -- in 1981.[footnoteRef:69] Piloted by a U.S. Navy test pilot and aeronautical engineer named John W. Young and a U.S. Navy pilot named Robert Crippin,[footnoteRef:70] the Columbia ushered in the age of "space planes" that allow a permanent human presence and usage on international space stations.[footnoteRef:71] [62: James G. Blight and Janet M. Lang. The Fog of War: Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2005, p. 3.] [63: Mets, p. 85.] [64: Ibid., p. 92.] [65: Ibid., p. 106.] [66: Ibid.] [67: Ibid., p. 105.] [68: Ibid., p. 106.] [69: Grant, p. 358.] [70: Piers Bizony. The Space Shuttle: Celebrating Thirty Years of NASA's First Space Plane. Minneapolis, MN: Zenith Press, 2011, p. 21.] [71: Ibid., p. 7.]

By the time of our First Gulf War of August 2, 1990 to February 28, 1991 saw the use of highly sophisticated aircraft using equally sophisticated smart systems. Those developments include: AWACS, which are aircraft using Airborne Warning and Control Systems[footnoteRef:72]; J-STARS, which are planes using joint surveillance and target attack radar systems[footnoteRef:73]; GPS, which is a global positioning system[footnoteRef:74]; and cruise missiles, which are remotely-guided missiles designed to large warheads with great accuracy over long distances.[footnoteRef:75] These developments, along with the brutal might of the United States, resulted in a decisive and relatively quick victory in the Gulf War. Meanwhile, space exploration continued, resulting in the 1998 partial launch of the first International Space Station, though it remained unmanned until 2000.[footnoteRef:76] [72: Richard Lowry. The Gulf War Chronicles: A Military History of the First War with Iraq. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, 2008, p.8; Mets, p. 139.] [73: Ibid., p. 226; Mets, p. 139.] [74: Ibid., p. 65; Mets, p. 107.] [75: Ibid., p. 8; Mets, p. 107.] [76: Kitmacher, Gary H. Reference Guide to the International Space Station: Assembly Complete Edition. Burlington, ONT, Canada: Apogee Books, 2010, p. 3.]

Between early 1991 and 2000, a notable development in aviation affecting the U.S. Military was the drone. Also known as an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), the drone was initially developed prior to World War II; however, the use of the development and use of these aircraft accelerated significantly during the 1990s. Designed for aviation duties that are too "dull, dirty and dangerous" for humans,[footnoteRef:77] drones were developed and used to great efficiency by the U.S. Military in the 1990s. [77: Brian P. Tice. "Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: The Force Multiplier of the 1990s." webcache.googleusercontent.com. Spring 1991. http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:gmXqreELrrMJ:www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj91/spr91/4spr91.htm+&cd=7&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us (accessed June 20, 2013).]

3. Conclusion

Though military use of flight was slow in the earliest days of 20th Century America, Post-World War IU.S. military involvements rapidly accelerated the development of flight, revolutionizing warfare. Starting as casual observers during the Wright Brothers' historic flight in December 1903, the military began to see and develop the military possibilities of aviation, with each subsequent war accelerating that development. By 1908, the U.S. Army's Signal Corps established an Aeronautical Division created to oversee testing of "dirigibles, balloons and airplanes" for which the U.S. government had already contracted. Furthermore, Congress allocated major funding for the Aeronautical Division by 1912 and the 1st Aero Squadron was established by 1913 and significantly funded by 1914. Observations of European aviation advancements and concentration made the United States sorely aware of its inadequacies vs. The aviation power of Axis forces in Europe. Consequently, Congress allotted $13,282,000.00 for "aeronautical development" in 1916. Unfortunately, these funds were not effectively used prior to our entry into World War I on April 16, 1917. During the War, however, American military forces began ramping up its use of aviation, creating an Army Air Service that used aviation for attacks, carrying messages and transport of able and wounded troops.

Between World Wars I and II, particularly during the 1920's and 1930's, America experienced a "Golden Age" of aviation. With significantly increased focus and funding, the developments in aviation began to multiply, including: the first commercial flights, establishment of the Army Air Corps, development of the first rocket fueled by liquid, the first nonstop solo trans-Atlantic flight, development of the jet engine, and the inauguration of the first modern airliner. Perhaps most notably for the military, the first completely jet-propelled aircraft was launched by Germany merely days before the onset of World War II. Fortunately, by the United States' entry into World War II, the Army Air Corps had a well-developed doctrine, the support of a thriving aircraft industry, the ability to rapidly expand as needed, and the capability to operate worldwide.