Defining research in counseling: McLeod's perspective and significance

Counseling Master Questionnaire

Counseling Questionnaire

Define research

A counseling session with an individual may qualify research as, putting together of information and understandings, followed by determination of validity of the conclusions and activities central on the shared knowledge (McLeod, 2003 p.4). A working definition of research is; an organized course of decisive investigation resulting to legitimate suggestions and conclusions, which are conveyed to other interested people. Based on this definition, there are several concepts that need evaluation. Critical inquiry is the drive whereby human beings are curious to know, learn and offer solutions to problems. As a process, research includes steps or stages, which further relies on observation, reflection and experimentation.

In the case of systematic, this means that research takes place within a theoretical system, and research includes application of principles aiming at achieving valid information. Results of research are propositions meaning that, after a research, there is a need to communicate the results to the public domain. Validity is the concept of authenticity of a research. Therefore, every research should provide empirical evidence into the problem. Finally, research is communicated to interest others, meaning that research studies offer a person, pieces of information that combine to form the complexity of the literature on the subject matter (McLeod, 2003, p.4).

6) Explain methodological pluralism

Methodological pluralism is the use of numerous theoretical approaches and methodological models in the course of scientific practice. However, in the field of counseling research, it is apparent that there are alternative methodological alternatives. In psychology and medicine, the traditional method of research is dominant. On the other hand, there is qualitative research highly influenced by classical phenomenology. Therefore, methodological pluralism will have to show or incorporate these approaches for it to fit in counseling research. A typical example in counseling research is Howard (1983) who utilized methodological pluralism.

He proposed that in order to comprehend the needs of humanity, one should consider several ontological views, various perceptions on humanity and utilize multiplicity of empirical research techniques. He further suggested that in order to understand humanity, methodological pluralism will facilitate the understanding. However, there was a challenge on how to put together findings from different perspectives into a single picture of human activity. In response, Howard (1983) suggested that researchers would determine whether conclusions on similar problems resulted to contradictory results (McLeod 2003, p. 179).

7) Explain the strategies for combining qualitative and quantitative research

One of the strategies for combining qualitative and quantitative research is the use of the triangulation technique. Triangulation utilizes the combination of survey questionnaires with non-standard interviews (Hauser, 2009, p. 149). The core principle in triangulation is that if various types of data offer similar conclusions, there is an increase in the conclusions (Hauser, 2009, p. 149). In addition, sequencing is another strategy that may help in combining qualitative and quantitative methods. A typical is a study has a qualitative phase of data followed by a quantitative stage of evaluating the data, whereby interviews are coded, and coding frequencies is determined; the evaluation of data may involve the construction of types by utilizing numerous evaluations. Another approach is by "hybrids" which originally comprise of a combination of the two methods of research. The aspects may have close packing to avoid differentiation, systematic content evaluation that combines the qualitative coding of information with the quantitative determination of coefficients of agreement.

8) Name the current criticism of therapy research by practitioners from McLeod's perspective

There are several criticisms apparent in therapy research. Owing to the fact that most of counseling and psychotherapy research occur within the field of psychology, as cited by (Heaton p.193) suggests that it is not advisable to base therapy on psychology. In addition, he suggests that theoretical work in therapy should foster recognition of the limits of language and the emerging context (McLeod, 2003 p. 193).

9) Explain the contributions of counseling to research

In recent years, counseling psychology has emerged as one of the most self-concerned disciplines that aim at helping professions. In addition, counseling has also contributed a lot in research. For instance, counseling has contributed to research in a manner that has led to emerging of other professions in the same field. In addition, through the interventions such as healing, which are outcomes of counseling, has led to further research on the effectiveness of counseling on clients. This means that counseling has led to the development of models such as the personal centered models, which help people to change individually and enhance personal development. Another significant contribution of counseling is that it has led to further research whereby scholars have produced numerous literatures and enhanced knowledge on counseling.

10) What is the role of theory from McLeod's perspective?

McLeod suggests that the role of theory is a significant issue in counseling and psychotherapy research. However, theory has offered significant assistance in this field of research. For instance, some researchers have utilized theoretical approaches, whereby their work has aimed at testing or extending the model. Theory assists the researchers to develop methods and instruments that allow them to measure theoretical designs such as self-concepts or important conflicting relationship arguments. In addition, the role of theory helps in conducting research according to the "grounded theory" methodology.

The model involves the collection of detailed accounts of personal experience, an afterwards coding the material in a way that provided meanings to emerge into the theory that is strongly "grounded" in the initial information. Additionally, the importance of theory is apparent because research does not place itself in a theoretical approach. Theory also offers substantial interpretive map of the territory it aims to explain. Into the bargain, theory also makes it possible to make various observations from productive links (McLeod, 2003, p. 179).

11) What are the conclusions of McLeod in relation to the critical issues of counseling research?

McLeod (2003) recognizes there are significant issues that may challenge counselors who conduct counseling research. However, he suggests that counseling research occupies an important role in the service of practice. Additionally, it is hard to predict how perfect counseling research may look like. Owing to the fact that counseling and psychotherapy are disciplinary processes that borrow from diverse disciplines, each of which provides different, but valuable concepts and research methods, it does not fall short of challenges. Therefore, readers of counseling research must realize that issues will always arise because different studies have different expressions and languages (McLeod, 2003, p.8).

12) What is the paradigm of the practitioner scientist?

The notion of paradigm is central to the work of Kuhn. A paradigm is a generally or universally recognized accomplishment, which offers model problems and subsequently offers solutions to a community of practitioners. Paradigms are models that assist scientists to know in which frameworks they operate. In addition, a scientific paradigm may comprise the whole apparatus or web knowledge employed by the members of a scientific community. The paradigm for this case is one that offers training (Crotty, 2005, p. 34-36).

13) What is the paradigm of the scientist's practitioner?

The concept of paradigms has successfully found its way and applied to the complex human systems. Additionally, as the knowledge of paradigms can only happen through training scientists within various societies, much of the knowledge of the "normal scientist" is complicated. Therefore, the scientist's practitioner paradigm is a model or approach that seeks to identify the motivations behind particular behaviors that are apparent by observing common-sense behaviors (Crotty, 2005, p. 34-36).

14) What are the steps of the scientific process?

The scientific method involves some steps that help in investigating an occurrence or any given research problem. However, as one advances in science, it is probable that one will come across many various ways of describing the scientific method. Although various versions will provide different steps, they all use a common basic process. Question is the first step where one identifies the problem. Research is the step where the investigator spends time observing and gathers data that may help in solving the question. Hypothesis is the stage where the investigator uses their critical thinking skills to offer an answer to the question.

In the experiment stage, the investigator provides a procedure to test the hypothesis, and the investigator will require to list materials used. In the fifth stage analyze, the investigator will look back the collected data and modify it if it is necessary. In the conclusion stage is where the investigator makes a statement in whether the experiment supports the hypotheses earlier developed. In the final stage communicate; the investigator will present their research to other people through pictures, videos and any other method (Hauser, 2009, p. 9).

15) Explain the ethical guidelines of research

Ethics are important when carrying out any research. Before undertaking any research, it is significant to stick to an ethical code of practice because research will involve people. The investigator will have to tell the participants the motive of research and ask for their permission. In addition, the investigator should debrief the participants at the end of research by telling them the purpose of the investigation and give them a chance to answer questions. The investigator will also ensure the participants' safety especially from shame, fright or physical harm. Another significant thing is to ensure confidentiality for participants and information obtained. In case the investigator needs to conceal some information, the deception rate should be very little, and should not result to any anguish. In addition, the investigator must make the participant's aware of their right to stop taking part in the study. Therefore, the participants must know of their right to withdraw from providing assistance in the study (Hauser, 2009, p. 49-52).

16) What are the six steps for evaluating research from Houser's perspective?

It is possible for investigators to include personal bias in a given study. Therefore, this will call or require evaluation in order to determine the authenticity of the study. Additionally, another issue that may call for evaluation is the concern of whether the text is comprehensive to establish the purpose of conducting a given study (Hauser, 2009, p. 69-72). The following questions will act as a guide to evaluate a given research:

a) Does the investigator provide a sufficient rationale for conducting the research?

b) So what? On the other hand, what significance will the study provide in counseling or education fields?

c) Is the research detailed and inclusive?

d) Does the investigator express any potential partiality in the study?

e) Are all significant concepts well defined by the investigator?

f) Does the investigator clearly explain prior techniques that are significant to understand the intention of conducting the research?

(17). Explain the five guideline steps and questions for evaluating the purpose statement

The purpose statement communicates the objective of the study in clear, brief and unambiguous terminologies. The purpose statement is an endeavor by the investigators to identify the intention of the study (Houser, 2009, p. 72-78). A typical example of a purpose statement is; the aim of this investigation is to establish the perceptions of the youth to drug testing models. The criterion of evaluating purpose statement is as follows:

1. The purpose statement should consist of variables in the research

2. The second question is: is it possible to identify the conducted study based on the purpose statement?

3. Thirdly, the purpose statement should identify the variables of interest and verify whether there is a clear identification of a research question.

4. The fourth guideline is central to the population of interest, whether the purpose statement identifies the population.

5. Finally, determine whether the purpose statement identifies a researchable purpose

(18).Explain the six guideline steps and questions for evaluating the hypothesis

The hypothesis is provisional statements of the expected correlation between the variables in a given study. For instance, there is a substantial relationship between self-concept and achievement in mathematics. Many researchers use the hypothesis because it allows for testing of correlations between variables and it assists in directing the research. In addition, hypotheses are of several types such as inductive and deductive, and research or statistical (Houser, 2009, p. 84-88). The criterion of evaluating the hypothesis is as follows:

1. Check whether stating of hypothesis is in a declarative form

2. Verify whether the hypotheses is consistent with factual information before the study

3. Identify whether it represents the logical extension of the research problem

4. Verify whether the hypotheses states the expected relationship between the variables in a given study

5. Determine whether it is possible to test the hypotheses

6. Verify whether the hypothesis is clear and brief

19).What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research?

Qualitative and quantitative researches are the major categories of research. However, there are several differences between qualitative and quantitative research. Quantitative research has a close alignment with the classical scientific paradigm. It involves collecting absolute data such as numerical data, to allow for examination in unbiased manner. In addition, there are numerous principles that go along with this type of research, which assist in promoting neutrality. Additionally, quantitative research comes later in the research study after understanding the scope of the study (McLeod, 2003, p. 72-73).

On the other hand, qualitative research is subjective, whereby, the research allows investigators to introduce their bias to assist then form a complete picture. This type of research is necessary in cases where the research problem is not clear and the investigator has the responsibility to determine the appropriate data. While quantitative research the investigator knows the research problem, in qualitative research the objective of the study may become evident as time passes (McLeod, 2003, p. 72-73).

20. Explain positivism

Positivism is a philosophy put forward by Auguste Comte, which suggested that the only authentic knowledge comes from science, and achieved only from positive affirmation of theories via stern scientific knowledge. He developed this philosophy after seeing the replacement of metaphysics by scientific techniques in the history of thought, and the observation of circular dependence of theory and subsequent observation in scientific methods. Additionally, positivism is the most advanced phase of society in anthropology evolutionism. In addition, positivism relies on the assumption that it is possible to observe the social life and develop reliable and valid knowledge about how it functions. The knowledge can further help in effecting social change further improving the human status. It further argues that sociology should have connection with observable things with the senses and that building of social theories should adopt a rigid, linear and methodical manner (Crotty, 2005, p. 42-44).

21.Explain constructionism

Constructionism simply means that something does not have a fixed meaning; therefore, by using various representational systems, it is possible to develop meaning. This also suggests that "constructionism" claims that it is possible to design meaning in the process of utilizing language. In addition, the constructionist approach stresses that the social character of language does not lie in the real appearance of things, nor is it fixed by the intention of the writer, but it is possible to generate meaning by using signs to communicate with each other (Crotty, 2005, p. 42).

22.Define methodology according to Crotty

According to Crotty (2005), methodology refers to the approach, plan of action, course or design that led to the choice and utilization of certain techniques and connecting the choice and use of techniques to the desired results. A typical example of a methodology is ethnography. In addition, ethnography is among many research designs that offer a guide to investigators when choosing methods and shape the utilization of the chosen methods (Crotty, 2005, p. 3).

23.Define methods according to Crotty

According to Crotty (2005), methods refer to the various techniques or procedures used to collect and evaluate information related to some research problems or hypotheses. A typical example of a method that is apparent in this book is the scientific method. Two scholars, Auguste and Weber, adopted the scientific method. In addition, Rickert comments on a generalizing method (applicable in the natural sciences) over an individualizing method (applicable in the human and social sciences). Owing to the distinction of the two sciences, Weber suggests that it is possible to develop a method, which will cater for the two sciences (Crotty, 2005, p. 3).

24.Define theoretical perspectives according to Crotty

According to Crotty (2005), theoretical perspective refers to the philosophical position informing the methodology and hence providing a perspective for the process and grounding its sense and criterion. A typical reference of a theoretical perspective is symbolic interactionism. It qualifies as a theoretical perspective because it serves to inform numerous methodologies not excluding some forms of ethnography. As a theoretical perspective, symbolic interactionism is a model that explains and helps in understanding the society and the humanity, and grounds a set of assumptions utilized by interactionist investigators in their methodology (Crotty, 2005, p. 3).

25.Define epistemology according to Crotty

According to Crotty (2005), epistemology refers to the theory of knowledge entrenched in the theoretical point-of-view and subsequently in the methodology. In addition, a typical example of an epistemology is constructionism, which is embodied in numerous theoretical points-of-views. Owing to the definition offered by Crotty (2005), we can further deduce that an epistemology is a way of understanding and explaining how we came to know what we already know. All this claims or puts across that symbolic interactionism, ethnography and constructionism will require having a correlation with each other rather than putting them aside as comparable or competing models or points-of-views (Crotty, 2005, p. 3).

26.What is ontology

Crotty suggests that literature uses the term ontology, and further suggests that ontology is the study of being. The study mainly looks at "what is," with the nature of existence and the design of reality. For instance, if ontology were to feature in a given framework, it would fit in epistemology informing the point-of-view. For each theoretical perspective embodies a particular manner what is (ontology) as well as specific manner of understanding about what it means to know (epistemology). Therefore, there is a tendency of ontological issues and epistemological issues merging. As the above information has made it clear, talking of the developing of meaning is to talk about the developing of meaningful reality. Owing to this joining together, it has posed significance complications for writers when they try to keep up with ontology and epistemology between abstractly (Crotty, 2005, p. 10).

27.What is the great divide according to Crotty

According to Crotty (2005), the great divide comes in because of the distinction apparent between the qualitative and quantitative researches. The divide or rather the distinction brought about by the methods applied in both researches. In addition, this distinction appears in the level of epistemology or theoretical perspective. For instance, in these two levels, qualitative methods are employed to ascertain the meanings, meaning it is consistent in the epistemology level (p. 15). This means that it lessens the understanding of meanings to scientific meanings.

Therefore, it is difficult for people to understand everyday meanings for scientific established meanings. On the other example, for constructionists, they understand scientific and non-scientific meanings in a similar way. Therefore, the constructionists often employ quantitative methods, but their contructionism makes a difference. Owing to this, it is possible to conclude that quantitative methods will achieve desired results when studying human beings, compared to qualitative methods bringing about the great divide (Crotty, 2005, p. 16).

28.Explain the relevance of Auguste Compe current research

Auguste brought about positivism, a concept, though dating back to many decades back, he popularized the term until people adopted. His main contribution is that when people applied the concept in various fields of study, for instance, in science it meant science grounded strongly and exclusively in posited things. Therefore, he helped people in the science field to conduct evidence-based studies and avoid relying on speculations. In addition, he brought about social reforms by combining social reorganization by reconstructing the intellectual understanding. The scholar also used his concept of positivism to convince the people into becoming positivists as a strategy to create a just society (McLeod, 2003, p. 22). In conclusion, Auguste is the founder of positivism although he did not perceive himself in this manner. Through the term positivism, he has brought about in research evident from working scientists, theoretical scientists and philosophers (McLeod, 2003, p. 23).

29.What is epistemological, philosophical, and methodological challenges do you see about yourself for doing counseling research?

Epistemological challenges

Several epistemological issues that challenge successful counseling research, mainly because of the difficulty in interpreting personal epistemologies and ontologism. From a conceptual perspective, epistemological beliefs are significant issues. In addition, the lack of a clear articulation concerning the relationship between personal epistemology and ontology also poses substantial challenges. From a methodological perspective, most of the findings have provided inconsistent and measurement problems, which have posed a persistent challenge in counseling research.

Methodological challenges

The main methodological issue is the concern of whether qualitative research represents an approach to inquiry, which is completely different from the qualitative research method. The main issue is whether it is possible to differentiate images of the person, owing to the fact that it is possible to combine the two methods. Another methodological issue lies in the nature of phenomenological inquiry. This is because some qualitative studies are descriptive while others aim at interpretation. In addition, in many qualitative researches the investigator's role is to gather and evaluate data using scientific methods. However, some other methods such as inquiry methods, argue that the researcher's role is to promote action learning and empowerment raising another methodological issue (McLeod, 2003, p. 97).

Philosophical challenges

Although there is a continued research in the field of counseling, it occurs under an ongoing philosophical debate, suggesting that there are significant philosophical issues, which might offer substantial challenges when conducting counseling research (McLeod, 2003, p. 5). According to McLeod (2003, p. 6) some of the philosophical issues include:

a) Is it possible to achieve useful knowledge by accurate, objective measurement of variables or by respecting the complexity of daily language?

b) Is the objective of the study the prediction of the conclusions?

c) What type of study is the most applicable for practice?

d) What is the role of theory in studies?

e) To what degree should the investigator aim to be detached and aim as against being involved participant in the lives of research participants?

f) What criteria is the most appropriate to judge the validity of research findings?